Reusing construction materials has become increasingly significant in the context of the Netherlands’s goal to achieve a fully circular economy by 2050. This thesis provides a guideline for the reuse of masonry, emphasising the transition from traditional demolition methods into techniques that facilitate the reuse of masonry elements. The research explores the development of masonry, current practices, and future perspectives, highlighting the environmental gain and durability proceedings.

Masonry, a cornerstone of Dutch residential construction, offers significant potential for reuse due to its durability and historical prevalence. Despite innovations like drystacking and prefabrication, traditional masonry remains dominant. This study underlines the urgency of enhancing masonry reuse in light of the projected increase in new housing construction and subsequent demolitions. The research identifies a gap in the reuse methods of masonry, proposing an approach of cutting out panels from exiting walls for incorporation into new projects.

The thesis begins with a historical overview of masonry and its separate elements, mortar and brick. It traces its development from Roman times to the present. Early masonry in the Netherlands saw the use of tuff stone and brick, evolving through various phases influenced by technological advancements and changes in construction methods. The introduction of cavity walls, the development of different brick bonds, and the use of various mortars are detailed, highlighting the transition from masonry as a structural element to its current role as a (decorative) façade.

Innovations in masonry construction are examined, focussing on drystacking, robotics, and prefabrication. Drystacking allows erecting masonry facades without mortar, facilitating easy disassembly and reuse. While promising, Robotics in masonry construction face challenges in widespread adoption due to the complexity and precision required. Prefabrication, though historically significant, remains underutilised in modern construction.

The thesis analyses the current stock of buildings in the Netherlands, emphasising the potential of masonry reuse. It discusses the materials flow, highlighting the substantial use of bricks and concrete in new construction. The research outlines the demolition trends, noting that older buildings, particularly those from the post-war period, are prime candidates for material recovery.

A significant portion of the thesis is dedicated to the practical aspects of masonry reuse. It describes the process of removing masonry elements, including desk research, visual inspection, and destructive tests. Techniques for sawing, hoisting and transporting masonry panels are discussed, providing a step-by-step guide for practitioners. The study also addresses storage and implementation, emphasising the need for proper handling to maintain the integrity of the reused material.

Durability is a critical concern in masonry reuse. The thesis evaluates structural and climate durability, assessing the properties of masonry elements under various conditions. It explores the impact of frost/thaw cycles, improper joint application, and strategies on the longevity of reused masonry. The research employs DIANA modelling to simulate the structural behaviour of masonry panels, providing insight into their performance during non-conventional boundary conditions of lifting the element from the existing structure.

The environmental impact of masonry reuse is quantified through a life cycle assessment (LCA). The study compares the environmental burdens of reused masonry elements with traditional buildings and reusing masonry bricks. It highlights significant reductions in CO2 emissions and total MKI value in both comparisons.

The thesis concludes with practical recommendations in the form of a guideline, encouraging a shift towards more sustainable building practices. The research emphasises the importance of quality control and standardisation in reusing, ensuring that reused material meets current regulations and performance standards.

By addressing the technical, environmental, and practical aspects of masonry reuse, this thesis contributes to the broader discourse on sustainable construction. It provides a valuable framework to enhance masonry reuse, aligning with the Netherlands' ambition for a circular economy. The guideline presented in this thesis research aims to facilitate the adoption of masonry reuse practices, promoting environmental conservation and resource efficiency in the construction sector.

The museum Boijmans van Beuningen in Rotterdam is currently closed for restoration. The architect Van der Steur made an extensive study of lighting in museum rooms (1930). This resulted in a pitched roof with glass and a layer of horizontal glass panes (legramen) that form the ceiling of the exhibition rooms. Below the glass panes timber blades (schoepen) are placed under an angle to disperse the light.
The museum board wants to preserve the vision on daylight of Van der Steur and is now considering options for sun shading above the ceiling. This addition will allow them to better control the illumination in the museum and protect the artwork.

This Master thesis describes a method to assess the daylight exposure in the museum Boijmans van Beuningen. It can be used for a combined lighting design (daylight and artificial). The purpose of the method is to compare different sun shading solutions and their effects on the illuminance. A toolbox is made that can be used on other museums.

The method starts with a 3D model of one of the museum rooms. Alterations had to be made to accommodate the temporary renovation state. For the validation of the model, HDR images were made on-site. These results were compared with the calculation made with the 3D model. Iteratively the best possible fit was made.

With the validated model an hourly daylight simulation was done using the EPW climate-based weather data. The resulting illuminance exceeded the desired level at several points in time. Three different types of sunscreens were chosen. These were schematised as a continuous layer on top of the legramen. Based on the behaviour of the sun shading on three specific days, a daylight factor of 2% was found between the illuminance on the wall and the outside illuminance. With this relation and the EPW weather data the desired sun shading states for an entire year are predicted. A control mechanism is designed for the opening and closing of the sun shading based on local measurements. When the sun shading state changes, the illuminance can fall below the desired level of 125 lx. In that case, additional artificial lighting is needed. The calculations show that over an entire year, the total exposure is 469.286 lx·hr, this is a reduction of 82.2 % compared to the museum without any sun shading.

With the developed approach the user can gather building-specific characteristics and geometries, that include some form of ‘device’ that controls the top light entering a room. If the first part of the modelling process is done, and the hourly data is collected, the model behaves within the practically accepted limits that were set. This version can assess what selection of screens is effective, that will reduce the incoming light, without unnecessarily over-reducing it, and so limits the need for additional diffuse artificial lighting.

The building sector is increasingly acknowledging the necessity to mitigate its environmental impact in response to the challenges posed by climate change. Adaptive facades specifically are used to develop a dynamic control of the envelope’s properties, modifying their behaviour in response to outdoor conditions and indoor stimuli. Thermochromic and photochromic technologies, also known as Passive Smart Windows (PSW) are passive solutions that aim to regulate solar gains through the integration of an Auto-Responsive (AR) layer, particularly for cooling purposes, to reduce energy consumption and minimize the operational impact of buildings.
Existing literature predominantly concentrates on the performance aspects of these technologies, mainly due to their early development stages. However, there remains a gap in assessing the overall environmental impact, both in terms of impact perspective, thus considering several possible effects
on the environment, and from a life cycle perspective, thus including both embodied and operational dimensions. The embodied impact, in particular, lacks comprehensive examination beyond considerations of Global Warming Potential (GWP). Furthermore, the dynamic landscape of materials and principles utilized in these technologies adds complexity to their evaluation.
This thesis project aims to bridge these gaps by establishing a comprehensive framework for evaluating the total impact of PSW, encompassing both embodied and operational stages. Through comparative analysis with alternative Dynamic Window Systems (DWS), comprising static windows paired with dynamic shading devices, the framework facilitates a thorough examination. Operational energy calculations are grounded in energy simulations of a standard office space with an exposed facade, while the description of the embodied stages gives an overview of the life cycle of PSW, with focus on different possibilities integrating the AR layer and their consequences.
The application of the framework in a case study reveals nuanced findings. While the GWP of PSW decreases of 1,1%, most of the other impact of PSW increase, including a growth of 0,1% of the Single Score. PSW has a lower impact compared to DWS due to the increased energy demand of the latter but, contrary to the initial expectations, the PSW does not consistently outperform static glazing due to conservative assumptions in energy simulation and a higher replacement rate, which significantly escalates embodied impact. Notably, challenges arise in defining materials for the AR layer, necessitating collaboration with manufacturers to improve data availability.
The study identifies replacement as a critical factor in determining overall impact, underscoring the importance of extending the lifespan of PSW or to consider a detachable layer to enhance its environmental sustainability. However, criticisms regarding the partial nature of the analysis emerge, particularly in neglecting user comfort and control over the facade, as well as the temporal flexibility of the technology. Future research directions should incorporate these aspects for a more comprehensive evaluation.
Ultimately, this thesis emphasizes the interdependency between the LCA approach, the energy simulation and the context of the PSW’s application. This highlights that the environmental impact assessment of such building elements can not leave the contextual application out of consideration in order to provide a sufficiently reliable result, thus limiting the use of this framework mainly to defined projects rather than to the estimation of generic impact for a PSW product.

Currently, most of the modular building can be fabricated off-site, except for the stability system. Therefore, the question arises: Could modules be designed such that there is no need for an additional stability system? As modules are typically built in a rectangular shape, incorporating stability elements such as bracings along the longer side of the module is not the problem. The main challenge lies in the limited length available for stability elements on the shorter side of the module, combined with the fact that this shorter side is commonly used for windows and openings for door frames. This introduces a conflicting interest between structural capacity and daylight within the module. This conflicting interest becomes more and more prominent as the building height goes up. A possible solution to this problem can be found in the use of a load-bearing window frame with glass infill as a stability element, often referred to in literature as a timber-glass shear wall (TGSW).

Therefore, this thesis will answer the main research question: 'To what extent can the structural performance of a timber-glass shear wall as a stability element in a timber module be used to accommodate for the stability of a mid-rise modular timber building?'

The approach to answering the main research question consists of several steps. First, a literature study was conducted on modular buildings and TGSW's. The outcome of the study has provided insight into how modular buildings are constructed in general and how relevant aspects such as progressive collapse, fire safety design, and foundation design influence structural design. The study also resulted in an analytical prediction model for the load-bearing capacity and stiffness of the TGSW. Through this prediction model, it became clear how the properties of individual components relate to the load-bearing capacity and stiffness of the total TGSW-system.

The second step was to propose a design for a modular timber building composed of timber modules. To save on computational time, the stability elements of the building are modelled using steel diagonals as an equivalent system for the TGSW. The cross-sectional area of the steel diagonals is directly related to the properties of the TGSW. Therefore, the steel diagonals have identical stability properties as the TGSW. In this study, varying the type of adhesive and the spacing of the screws was found to have the most significant impact on the overall structural properties of the TGSW. The horizontal connections are made of steel plates fastened with screws. The vertical connections are realised by shear plate connectors. The entire building was modelled in a 3D FEM programme to assess the structural behaviour of the building and its compliance with building regulations. Several building configurations ranging from 1:1 to 1:3 height-to-width ratio were investigated. For each building configuration, the cross-sectional area of the steel diagonals was adjusted within a specified range. This range corresponds to variations in adhesive type or screw spacing. As a result, design graphs were produced, which present the requirements for the load-bearing capacity and stiffness of the stability system. These can be compared to the load-bearing capacity and stiffness of the TGSW. This comparison can be used as a validation method to determine the viability of the TGSW stability element in a modular building.

The results of this study indicate that a modular building can be stabilised by a TGSW up to six stories within the height-to-width ratio of 1:1 to 1:3. The minimum building configurations per story height are: 3 modules high by 5 modules wide, 4 by 8 modules, 5 by 12 modules, and 6 by 18 modules. These slenderness ratios were governed by the strength of the TGSW. The limiting factor in the load-bearing capacity is the shear strength of the adhesive. These slenderness ratios could only be reached with elastic adhesives such as silicones.

The next step is to create a more extensive FEM model that could predict the load-bearing capacity and stiffness of the TGSW in a more accurate way compared to an analytical model. Furthermore, exploring the performance of the TGSW under different horizontal loads, such as earthquakes, would give valuable insight.

This Master Thesis research is carried out to investigate the most efficient re-mountable timber car park in terms of feasibility and structural performance. Applying the re-mountability principle with a sustainable material like timber is important to help the construction industry tackle environmental problems like global warming. Specifically, re-mountability is important because it ensures a second use of the car park without applying environmentally affecting processes, like redesigning or repairing the gained elements, and without creating waste.
In summary, the research question is: What is the most suitable design for a timber re-mountable car park, including global structure and details based on structural performance and feasibility?
The first part of this research is determining the most suitable floor system. This is important because of the large floor span in a timber car park and the reduced stiffness of timber compared to concrete and steel. Information is gathered by investigating car park and floor system references and the boundary conditions from regulations, material behaviour, transportation, etc. Next, a preliminary design is made for the four largest potential floor systems.
Based on this preliminary design combined with the earlier gained knowledge, the most suitable floor system is chosen in a multi-criteria analysis. A spruce CLT floor system of 140 mm thick combined with 360 mm x 1040 mm glulam beams becomes the most suitable alternative. A Triflex coating is necessary on top to ensure sufficient moisture resistance and re-mountability of the floor system. The fire resistance does not affect the floor system design because the serviceability limit state is governing.
Then, the second part of this research uses the known floor system to design the re-mountable connections in a final design phase. Using the knowledge gained from the references and boundary conditions, a bolted connection is the most suitable re-mountable connection type. However, a console is most suitable for the column-to-beam connection due to the positive effect on the necessary crane operation time.

The impacts that the construction industry has on the environment has become an element of concern worldwide. The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) claims that building activity has the potential to dramatically alter land’s surface (Sikra, 2017). This is mostly because many construction projects include destroying vegetation and digging, which extensively pollutes the area’s surroundings. Additionally, due to their high embodied energy contents, construction materials like concrete, aluminum, and steel are directly to blame for significant amounts of CO2 emissions. Uncomfortably, building activities account for one-sixth of world freshwater consumption, one-quarter of global wood consumption, and one-quarter of global waste. They also consume half of all natural resources that are taken from the environment. 40% of drinking water contamination, 50% of landfill waste, 23% of air pollution, and 50% of climate change are all caused by the building industry (Sikra, 2017). And these are just some of the aspects in which the construction industry is involved, but it is enough to realise that solutions are needed to heal planet Earth and in fact contribute positively to it.

One approach to this problem is to leave room for nature to manifest and express itself and then to be inspired by it. Natural creatures are an example of living and thriving on Earth by striking a balance between themselves and the surroundings. They are constantly integrating and optimizing themselves in order to produce life-friendly settings (Oguntona and Aigbavboa, 2017). The lessons that can be learned from nature are summarised in Bio-mimicry Life’s Principles. One of them suggests how natural organisms evolved with the logic of optimising rather than maximising by developing a multi-function design (De Pauw et al., 2010a).

This report deals with two key principles: sustainability and multi-functionality. The aim is to develop a methodology that allows, in an objective manner, the identification of the best tailored building strategy in terms of maximisation of the level of sustainability achievable with one single solution.

The project follows 6 steps: research, development, investigation and improvement, validation and testing. The methodology is designed within Microsoft Excel and integrates the sustainability criteria of LEED green building rating system, a program for assessing the green level of buildings that is already widely used internationally. The LEED program appears in all project phases but particularly in the research, development and validation phase. The latter is conducted by the method of comparing data obtained from the tool in Excel with verified data from LEED-certified projects. After the development phase, it emerges that the tool while based on a well-structured, widely used and tested program such as LEED, is prone to subjectivity. Much of the time is therefore devoted to making sure that the tool is project-dependent and not user-dependent. As for the investigation and improvement phases, these are carried out by means of a survey built in Google Forms. Finally, the process of testing the tool is performed by applying it to a real case which is offered by the engineering and architecture company OneWorks. It is the General Aviation terminal at Orio al Serio airport (Bergamo, Italy).

To conclude, time is a crucial aspect when it comes to reducing the impact on the environment. So, this thesis aspires to provide a new methodology that can help designers, engineers and architects to shorten the time it takes to choose the best tailored strategy in terms of sustainability and multi-functionality.

From the beginning of the 21st century, thin glass has been used as a screen protector for electronic devices and smartphones. During the last 10 years, several studies have been carried out to introduce the thin glass in the building industry. The advantages of this material are light weight, high strength and high flexibility. On the other hand, thin glass, due to its low thickness, has a limited bending stiffness. Therefore, it is challenging to apply this innovative material in the building field. Within this research, the stiffness of thin glass is increased by the realization of a thin glass cold bent sandwich panel.
The proposed sandwich panel is realized by using thin glass faces and a 3D printed polymeric core. Due to the high flexibility of the glass, the material can be easily bent and glued to the core. The curved core hold the cold bent glass in shape without the use of any frame.
To validate the numerical results, laboratory tests have to be carried out. The design of the curved sandwich panel revealed to be a feasible façade panel proposal. The feasibility is defined in terms of a structural façade element, which fulfill the limits of safety and comfort. The curved sandwich panel, proposed in the final design, results to be 280 times stiffer compared to a curved two layered thin glass laminated panel.
Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the proposed sandwich panel could guarantee a weight reduction of more than 80% in comparison to the glass used nowadays in building façades. This characteristic not only facilitates the assemblage of the façade, but also can bring to the usage of a lighter support structure. This can bring advantages both in terms of cost of the total structure and energy required to assemble the building.

The main topic of this thesis is the design of arch with components made up of glass and reinforced concrete. Parametric process as well as experiment is carried out in this research. In this thesis, bond strength between glass and fly ash concrete are studied.