This article presents a family of sub-1-V, fully-CMOS voltage references adopting MOS devices in weak inversion to achieve continuous operation from room temperature (RT) down to cryogenic temperatures. Their accuracy limitations due to curvature, body effect, and mismatch are investigated and experimentally validated. Implemented in 40-nm CMOS, the references show a line regulation better than 2.7%/V from a supply as low as 0.99 V. By applying dynamic element matching (DEM) techniques, a spread of 1.2% (3σ ) from 4.2 to 300 K can be achieved, resulting in a temperature coefficient (TC) of 111 ppm/K. As the first significant statistical characterization extending down to cryogenic temperatures, the results demonstrate the ability of the proposed architectures to work under cryogenic harsh environments, such as space- and quantum-computing applications.

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The grand challenge of scaling up quantum computers requires a full-stack architectural standpoint. In this position paper, we will present the vision of a new generation of scalable quantum computing architectures featuring distributed quantum cores (Qcores) interconnected via quantum-coherent qubit state transfer links and orchestrated via an integrated wireless interconnect.

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Modular quantum computing architectures are a promising alternative to monolithic QPU (Quantum Processing Unit) designs for scaling up quantum devices. They refer to a set of interconnected QPUs or cores consisting of tightly coupled quantum bits that can communicate via quantum-coherent and classical links. In multi-core architectures, it is crucial to minimize the amount of communication between cores when executing an algorithm. Therefore, mapping a quantum circuit onto a modular architecture involves finding an optimal assignment of logical qubits (qubits in the quantum circuit) to different cores with the aim to minimize the number of expensive inter-core operations while adhering to given hardware constraints. In this paper, we propose for the first time a Quadratic Unconstrained Binary Optimization (QUBO) technique to encode the problem and the solution for both qubit allocation and inter-core communication costs in binary decision variables. To this end, the quantum circuit is split into slices, and qubit assignment is formulated as a graph partitioning problem for each circuit slice. The costly inter-core communication is reduced by penalizing inter-core qubit communications. The final solution is obtained by minimizing the overall cost across all circuit slices. To evaluate the effectiveness of our approach, we conduct a detailed analysis using a representative set of benchmarks having a high number of qubits on two different multi-core architectures. Our method showed promising results and performed exceptionally well with very dense and highly-parallelized circuits that require on average 0.78 inter-core communications per two-qubit gate.

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Artificial neural networks are becoming an integral part of digital solutions to complex problems. However, employing neural networks on quantum processors faces challenges related to the implementation of non-linear functions using quantum circuits. In this paper, we use repeat-until-success circuits enabled by real-time control-flow feedback to realize quantum neurons with non-linear activation functions. These neurons constitute elementary building blocks that can be arranged in a variety of layouts to carry out deep learning tasks quantum coherently. As an example, we construct a minimal feedforward quantum neural network capable of learning all 2-to-1-bit Boolean functions by optimization of network activation parameters within the supervised-learning paradigm. This model is shown to perform non-linear classification and effectively learns from multiple copies of a single training state consisting of the maximal superposition of all inputs.

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With the potential of quantum algorithms to solve intractable classical problems, quantum computing is rapidly evolving, and more algorithms are being developed and optimized. Expressing these quantum algorithms using a high-level language and making them executable on a quantum processor while abstracting away hardware details is a challenging task. First, a quantum programming language should provide an intuitive programming interface to describe those algorithms. Then a compiler has to transform the program into a quantum circuit, optimize it, and map it to the target quantum processor respecting the hardware constraints such as the supported quantum operations, the qubit connectivity, and the control electronics limitations. In this article, we propose a quantum programming framework named OpenQL, which includes a high-level quantum programming language and its associated quantum compiler. We present the programming interface of OpenQL, we describe the different layers of the compiler and how we can provide portability over different qubit technologies. Our experiments show that OpenQL allows the execution of the same high-level algorithm on two different qubit technologies, namely superconducting qubits and Si-Spin qubits. Besides the executable code, OpenQL also produces an intermediate quantum assembly code, which is technology independent and can be simulated using the QX simulator.

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The progress in developing quantum hardware with functional quantum processors integrating tens of noisy qubits, together with the availability of near-term quantum algorithms has led to the release of the first quantum computers. These quantum computing systems already integrate different software and hardware components of the so-called “full-stack”, bridging quantum applications to quantum devices. In this paper, we will provide an overview on current full-stack quantum computing systems. We will emphasize the need for tight co-design among adjacent layers as well as vertical cross-layer design to extract the most from noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) processors which are both error-prone and severely constrained in resources. As an example of co-design, we will focus on the development of hardware-aware and algorithm-driven compilation techniques.@en

The qubit-mapping problem aims to assign and route qubits of a quantum circuit onto an noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) device in an optimized fashion, with respect to some cost function. Finding an optimal solution to this problem is known to scale exponentially in computational complexity; as such, it is imperative to investigate scalable qubit-mapping solutions for NISQ computation. In this work, a noise-aware heuristic qubit-assignment algorithm (which assigns initial placements for qubits in a quantum algorithm to qubits on an NISQ device, but does not route qubits during the quantum algorithm's execution) is presented and compared against the optimal brute-force solution, as well as a trivial qubit assignment, with the aim to quantify the performance of our heuristic qubit-assignment algorithm. We find that for small, connected-graph algorithms, our heuristic-assignment algorithm faithfully lies in between the effective upper and lower bounds given by the brute-force and trivial qubit-assignment algorithms. Additionally, we find that the topological-graph properties of quantum algorithms with over six qubits play an important role in our heuristic qubit-assignment algorithm's performance on NISQ devices. Finally, we investigate the scaling properties of our heuristic algorithm for quantum processors with up to 100 qubits; here, the algorithm was found to be scalable for quantum-algorithms that admit path-like graphs. Our findings show that as the size of the quantum processor in our simulation grows, so do the benefits from utilizing the heuristic qubit-assignment algorithm, under particular constraints for our heuristic algorithm. This work, thus, characterizes the performance of a heuristic qubit-assignment algorithm with respect to the topological-graph and scaling properties of a quantum algorithm that one may wish to run on a given NISQ device.

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This magazine is both an introduction into quantum computing and an exploration of its impact on our world. It follows on from our 2019 magazine on the quantum internet. Since 2019, much progress has been made in quantum technologies worldwide. In 2020, for instance, the first European quantum computer came online in Delft. Although this is meant for experiments only, it shows that quantum computing is becoming real. We aim to present you with a basic picture of quantum computing, and sketch applications for which it can be used. The contents are meant to be accessible, but some texts may be more suitable for readers with a basic understanding of quantum technology. Let that not be a reason to stop exploring: the magazine is meant to be browsed, so you can find the articles that help you learn about quantum computers. At TU Delft, we see it as our responsibility to investigate and inform you about the impact of the technologies we develop. Hence, we also explore the potential impact of quantum computing on the world: how the expected wave of applications may ripple through society. This exploration is partly guess-work. Quantum computing is a new technology and no doubt more applications will be discovered. Moreover, while as a university we are good at describing what quantum computing is, it will be future users who determine what meaning its applications will have. That is why we also asked the help of experts in and outside of academia when exploring the impact of quantum computing. This magazine is the result of the work by the Quantum Computing Vision Team. Vision teams are composed of TU Delft scientists and engineers from many disciplines, and with vision teams TU Delft participates in public discussions on technologies. We hope this magazine offers you insights of what quantum computing can bring, and invites you to become part of the discussion of how we can make quantum computing meaningful to you and to society. @en

In the quest of large-scale quantum computers, multi-core distributed architectures are considered a compelling alternative to be explored. A crucial aspect in such approach is the stringent demand on communication among cores when qubits need to interact, which conditions the scalability potential of these architectures. In this work, we address the question of how the cost of the communication among cores impacts on the viability of the quantum multi-core approach. Methodologically, we consider a design space in which architectural variables (number of cores, number of qubits per core), application variables for several quantum benchmarks (number of qubits, number of gates, percentage of two-qubit gates) and inter-core communication latency are swept along with the definition of a figure of merit. This approach yields both a qualitative understanding of trends in the design space and companion dimensioning guidelines for the architecture, including optimal points, as well as quantitative answers to the question of beyond which communication performance levels the multi-core architecture pays off. Our results allow to determine the thresholds for inter-core communication latency in order for multi-core architectures to outperform single-core quantum processors.

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Despite its tremendous potential, it is still unclear how quantum computing will scale to satisfy the requirements of its most powerful applications. Among other issues, there are hard limits to the number of qubits that can be integrated into a single chip. Multicore architectures are a firm candidate for unlocking the scalability of quantum processors. Nonetheless, the vulnerability and complexity of quantum communications make this a challenging approach. A comprehensive design should imply consolidating the communications stack in the quantum computer architecture. In this article, we explain how this vision, by entangling communications and computation in the core of the design, may help to solve the open challenges. We also summarize the first results of our application of structured design methodologies backing this vision. With our work, we hope to contribute with design guidelines that may help unleash the potential of quantum computing.

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In the midst of the NISQ era of quantum computers, the challenges are gravitating to encompass both architecting and full-stack engineering aspects, which are inherently algorithm-driven, so that there starts to be a convergence of bottom-up and top down design approaches, what we coin as the Quantum Architecting (QuArch) era. In face of many-fold diverse design proposals, in this paper it is postulated and proposed to apply the so-called Design Space Exploration (DSE) to the full vertical stack of quantum systems as an instrumental methodology to address such design diversity challenge. This structured design means, based upon composing a multidimensional input design space together with compressing the set of output performance metrics into an optimization-oriented overall figure of merit, provides a framework and method for optimization, for performance comparison. It yields as well a way to discriminate among alternative techniques at all layers and across layers, eventually as a structured and comprehensive design-oriented formal framework to address the quantum system design and evaluation complexity. The paper concludes by illustrating instances of this methodology in optimizing and comparing mapping techniques to address the resource-constrained current NISQ quantum chips, and to carry out a quantitative gap analysis of scalability trends aiming manycore distributed quantum architectures.

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The quantum assembly language (QASM) is a popular intermediate representation used in many quantum compilation and simulation tools to describe quantum circuits. Currently, multiple different dialects of QASM are used in different quantum computing tools. This makes the interaction between those tools tedious and time-consuming due to the need for translators between theses different syntaxes. Beside requiring a multitude of translators, the translation process exposes the constant risk of loosing information due to the potential incompatibilities between the different dialects. Moreover, several tools introduce details of specific target hardware or qubit technologies within the QASM syntax and prevent porting the code to other hardwares. In this paper, we propose a common QASM syntax definition, named cQASM, which aims to abstract away qubit technology details and guarantee the interoperability between all the quantum compilation and simulation tools supporting this standard. Our vision is to enable an extensive quantum computing toolbox shared by all the quantum computing community@en

With small-scale quantum processors transitioning from experimental physics labs to industrial products, these processors in a few years are expected to scale up and be more robust for efficiently computing important algorithms in various fields. In this paper, we propose a quantum algorithm to address the challenging field of data processing for genome sequence reconstruction. This research describes an architecture-aware implementation of a quantum algorithm for sub-sequence alignment. A new algorithm named QiBAM (quantum indexed bidirectional associative memory) is proposed, which uses approximate pattern-matching based on Hamming distances. QiBAM extends the Grover’s search algorithm in two ways, allowing: (1) approximate matches needed for read errors in genomics, and (2) a distributed search for multiple solutions over the quantum encoding of DNA sequences. This approach gives a quadratic speedup over the classical algorithm. A full implementation of the algorithm is provided and verified using the OpenQL compiler and QX Simulator framework. Our implementation represents a first exploration towards a full-stack quantum accelerated genome sequencing pipeline design. @en

Quantum algorithms need to be compiled to respect the constraints imposed by quantum processors, which is known as the mapping problem. The mapping procedure will result in an increase of the number of gates and of the circuit latency, decreasing the algorithm's success rate. It is crucial to minimize mapping overhead, especially for noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) processors that have relatively short qubit coherence times and high gate error rates. Most of prior mapping algorithms have only considered constraints, such as the primitive gate set and qubit connectivity, but the actual gate duration and the restrictions imposed by the use of shared classical control electronics have not been taken into account. In this article, we present a mapper called Qmap to make quantum circuits executable on scalable processors with the objective of achieving the shortest circuit latency. In particular, we propose an approach to formulate the classical control restrictions as resource constraints in a conventional list scheduler with polynomial complexity. Furthermore, we implement a routing heuristic to cope with the connectivity limitation. This router finds a set of movement operations that minimally extends circuit latency. To analyze the mapping overhead and evaluate the performance of different mappers, we map 56 quantum benchmarks onto a superconducting processor named Surface-17. Compared to a prior mapping strategy that minimizes the number of operations, Qmap can reduce the latency overhead (LtyOH) up to 47.3% and operation overhead up to 28.6%, respectively.

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Being a very promising technology, with impressive advances in the recent years, it is still unclear how quantum computing will scale to satisfy the requirements of its most powerful applications. Although continued progress in the fabrication and control of qubits is required, quantum computing scalability will depend as well on a comprehensive architectural design considering a distributed multi-core approach as an alternative to the traditional monolithic version, hence including a communications perspective. However, this goes beyond introducing mere interconnects. Rather, it implies consolidating the full communications stack in the quantum computer structure. In this paper, we propose a double full-stack architecture encompassing quantum computation and quantum communications, which we use to address the monolithic versus distributed question with a structured design methodology. For that, we revisit the different quantum computing layers to capture and model their essence by highlighting the open design variables and performance metrics. Using behavioral models and actual measurements from existing quantum computers, the results of simulations suggest that multicore architectures may effectively unleash the full quantum computer potential.

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Cryogenic CMOS (cryo-CMOS) is a viable technology for the control interface of the large-scale quantum computers able to address non-trivial problems. In this paper, we demonstrate state-of-the-art cryo-CMOS circuits and systems for such application and we discuss the challenges still to be faced on the path towards practical quantum computers.

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Quantum algorithms can be expressed as quantum circuits when the circuit model of computation is adopted. Such a circuit description is usually hardware-agnostic, that is, it does not consider the limitations that the quantum hardware might have. In order to make quantum algorithms executable on quantum devices they need to comply to their constraints, which mainly affect the parallelism of quantum operations and the possible interactions between the qubits. The process of adapting a quantum circuit to meet the quantum chip restrictions is known as mapping. The resulting circuit usually has a higher number of gates and depth, decreasing the algorithm's reliability. Different mapping solutions have been already proposed. Most of them are meant for a specific quantum processor and differ in methodology, approach and features. In addition, they are usually only compared in terms of added gates, circuit depth and compilation time. No thorough comparative analysis of the different mapping solutions performance and features has been performed so far.In this paper, we propose to apply structured design space exploration (DSE) methodologies to the mapping procedures. This will allow not only to have a more in depth and structured analysis of their performance but also to identify what features are key and worth to implement. By using DSE we will be able to: i) determine in what regimes some mapping solutions outperform others; ii) derive optimal mapping strategies for specific quantum algorithms and quantum processors; and iii) perform an scalability analysis. In addition, DSE techniques cannot only be applied to the mapping layer that is key for bridging quantum applications to quantum devices, but also to the full-stack quantum computing system allowing for its crosslayer co-design.

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Continuing advancements in quantum information processing have caused a paradigm shift from research mainly focused on testing the reality of quantum mechanics to engineering qubit devices with numbers required for practical quantum computation. One of the major challenges in scaling toward large-scale solid-state systems is the limited input/output (I/O) connectors present in cryostats operating at sub-kelvin temperatures required to execute quantum logic with high fidelity. This interconnect bottleneck is equally present in the device fabrication-measurement cycle, which requires high-throughput and cryogenic characterization to develop quantum processors. Here we multiplex quantum transport of two-dimensional electron gases at sub-kelvin temperatures. We use commercial off-the-shelf CMOS multiplexers to achieve an order of magnitude increase in the number of wires. Exploiting this technology, we accelerate the development of 300 mm epitaxial wafers manufactured in an industrial CMOS fab and report a remarkable electron mobility of (3.9 ± 0.6) × 10⁵ cm²/Vs and percolation density of (6.9 ± 0.4) × 10¹⁰ cm⁻², representing a key step toward large silicon qubit arrays. We envision that the demonstration will inspire the development of cryogenic electronics for quantum information, and because of the simplicity of assembly and versatility, we foresee widespread use of similar cryo-CMOS circuits for high-throughput quantum measurements and control of quantum engineered systems.

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The implementation and practicality of quantum algorithms hinge largely on the quality of operations within a quantum processor. Therefore, including realistic error models in quantum computing simulation platforms is crucial for testing these algorithms. Existing classical simulation techniques of quantum information processing devices exhibit a tradeoff between scalability (the number of qubits that can be simulated) and accuracy (how close the simulation is to the target error model). In this paper, we introduce a simulation approach that relies on approximating the density matrix evolution with a stochastic sum of unitary and measurement channels within a pure-state simulation environment. This model shows an improvement of at least one order of magnitude in terms of accuracy compared to the best known stochastic approaches while allowing us to simulate a larger number of qubits compared to the exact density matrix simulation. Furthermore, we used this approach to realistically simulate Grover's algorithm and the surface code 17 using a gate set tomography characterization of quantum operations as a noise model.

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Quantum computing is currently moving from an academic idea to a practical reality. Quantum computing in the cloud is already available and allows users from all over the world to develop and execute real quantum algorithms. However, companies which are heavily investing in this new technology such as Google, IBM, Rigetti, Intel, IonQ, and Xanadu follow diverse technological approaches. This led to a situation where we have substantially different quantum computing devices available thus far. They mostly differ in the number and kind of qubits and the connectivity between them. Because of that, various methods for realizing the intended quantum functionality on a given quantum computing device are available. This paper provides an introduction and overview into this domain and describes corresponding methods, also referred to as compilers, mappers, synthesizers, transpilers, or routers.

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