Rainfed agriculture is a critical component of global food production and farmers' livelihoods in developing countries, yet it is increasingly under pressure from global climate change. This escalating climate risk impacts both the production (upstream) and industrial (downstream) segments of the agricultural supply chain. Addressing such crises in these regions requires approaches that go beyond conventional methods such as supply augmentation. Recent attention has shifted toward regenerative agriculture, which aims to boost rainfed agriculture without the need for irrigation while mitigating climate risks in economically vulnerable regions. However, sustainable solutions such as water-saving interventions have often lacked adequate financial support, traditionally relying on insufficient public sector investments or not given consideration at all. This case study investigates the potential of water-saving interventions to enhance crop water use efficiency in rainfed agriculture and explores how green finance mechanisms, particularly green bonds, can support the widespread adoption of such practices in the central-Indian cotton supply chain. It further aims to establish the first steps toward a transactional water trading system through the newly emerging concept of water credits, which incentivizes the conservation and efficient use of water resources. A socio-hydrological model is utilized to account for crop-water-farmer feedback and biochar is applied as the soil moisture-saving intervention. The intervention focuses on soil-hydrological dynamics and introduces field capacity changes into the model. The financial feasibility of these interventions is evaluated using a compound interest model that relates rates of return to treatment levels (tons per hectare). Results demonstrate profitability in the majority of the study area, although different treatment levels are observed for optimal returns. Annual return projections range between 3\%-12\%, with the majority of application rates clustering around 2, 15, and 30 tons/hectare, representing a regular trimodal distribution. Strong heterogeneity is observed across the region with non-linear dependence on soil-hydrological parameters. Green bonds, although eligible for such an initiative, are currently unsuitable for financial support due to the immaturity of the Indian green market, lack of issuance for agriculture and water projects, and a primary focus on large-scale projects. The study provides an initial path for a field-scale pilot application scheme in Maharashtra cotton production, though rigorous monitoring plans are essential for assessment. Despite the model's profitable outcomes, the Indian green bond market is still in the growth phase, and more mature markets (e.g., the EU and USA) with institutions that hold more diverse portfolios may be approached to support projects of such scales. Supporting a water credit system is deemed challenging due to India's strongly established groundwater-energy dynamics (irrigation and pumping with fossil fuels) and the government's erratic subsidy programs.

This study explores domestic water use in the rural areas of Santiago de Cali and Restrepo, Colombia, focusing on the application of the Values, Beliefs, and Norms (VBN) theory to understand individual water use behaviours. Recognizing the critical importance of water as a fundamental resource, the research addresses the complexities of water management, particularly in the context of increasing demand and inconsistent availability. The study seeks to fill gaps in traditional water use research by incorporating psychological factors and decision-making frameworks, aiming to contribute to the broader field of water management. Utilizing data from 926 households, the study employs a multi-linear regression analysis to examine the relationships between socio-economic factors (SEC) and VBN psychological factors with three dependent variables: perceived total water use, shower time, and the use of watersaving devices. The analysis identified significant predictors of water use behaviour, with VBN factors providing additional explanatory power beyond that of socioeconomic variables. Specifically, VBN factors accounted for an additional 2% of the variance in total water use, 3.3% in shower time, and 4% in the use of water-saving devices. Values, particularly biospheric and altruistic, were the most consistent contributors to water-saving behaviours, while beliefs had minimal impact. The findings highlight the importance of promoting biospheric and altruistic values, as well as reinforcing personal norms related to water conservation, in encouraging sustainable water use behaviours. Educational campaigns that emphasize the moral responsibility to conserve water and the community benefits of sustainable water use are likely to be effective, particularly in rural areas. The study also notes that individuals with strong egoistic values, such as a desire for unlimited water supply, are less inclined to adopt water-saving behaviours, suggesting the need for targeted interventions that connect personal benefits with conservation efforts. In conclusion, while the VBN framework provides valuable insights into specific water use behaviours, its overall impact on total domestic water use is moderated by contextual and socioeconomic factors. Future research should continue to explore these dynamics, with an emphasis on developing tailored interventions that address both the psychological and contextual determinants of water use behaviour. This approach can help policymakers and environmental educators foster more sustainable domestic water use, particularly in rural areas where such factors play a significant role.

Climate change has an enormous impact on our society: heat stress, droughts and flooding can cause a lot a problems. These problems are even more severe in the built environment as the urban design influences the urban climate. Less greenery, more paved surfaces, less urban ventilation an more human activity influence the urban climate in a negative way. This results in higher temperatures and more precipitation in cities compared to rural areas. To cope with the urban climate problems climate mitigation is not sufficient. Therefore it is also important to adapt the urban landscape to the changing climate conditions. Climate adaptation strategies for the built environment are still not sufficiently implemented and therefore this research looks at possible bottlenecks for these strategies in the spatial planning process.
In this research three Dutch post-war neighbourhoods are reviewed as they have seen recent redevelopment of (parts of) the public space. Post-war neighbourhoods are relevant as a lot of infrastructure is in need of replacement, which makes this an opportunity to combine this with the implementation climate adaptation. Post-war neighbourhoods are common throughout Dutch cities and also house relatively large amounts of vulnerable groups of people. The amount of public space in these neighbourhoods gives municipalities a lot of influence on urban design and thus on the amount of climate adaptation.
The research reviewed the spatial planning process of the three cases with twenty interviews with practitioners in the redevelopment projects and through the analysis of project documentation. The three cases are Bernadottelaan (Utrecht), IVORIM (Haarlem) and Kruidenbuurt (Tilburg). Main bottlenecks of climate adaptation are the large investment and maintenance costs and the claim on the limited public space. The goal is to come up with recommendations to improve implementation of climate adaptation in the spatial planning process.
The outcome of the research is that there are six different recommendations related to actor involvement, project finance, project scale and design guidelines. Maintenance parties should be actively involved in the design process instead of only giving advice or testing designs. This would enhance the amount of climate adaptation as measures have to be maintainable. Early contractor involvement is necessary to be able to be more cost efficient and come up with practical design solutions. External parties like housing associations and public utilities should be informed in the early stages of project for them to be able to match the planning. This makes bundling of challenges possible and eliminates some spatial restrictions. Project finance has to be integral as climate adaptation is divided over several departments. With integral financing projects can be bundled and therefore overall be more cost efficient. Projects at neighbourhood scale benefit from the ability to solve different problems at larger scale and form the placement of solutions to other challenges so that climate adaptation measures can be done where they are needed the most. Design guidelines need to be implemented to ensure that ambitions and priorities are rationally translated and balanced in the final design.

This thesis reviewed current methods for monetarily quantifying the sustainable aspects of coastal engineering solutions. It developed a holistic monetary valuation framework that integrates the Ecosystem Services Assessment (ESA) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to evaluate the impacts and benefits of coastal engineering interventions. The framework offers a comprehensive approach to assessing the economic, social, and environmental impacts and benefits of coastal solutions, thereby enabling informed decision-making.

Applying the framework to a case study in the Netherlands demonstrated its effectiveness in providing valuable insights into the sustainability of coastal protection measures. The sensitivity analysis underscored the importance of accurately valuing ecosystem services and environmental impacts, as well as the influence of economic parameters, materials, and modes of operation on project viability. Additionally, the framework’s potential for broader application was illustrated through a feasibility study in Suriname.

The study’s findings highlight the need for improved data collection, stakeholder engagement, methodological refinements, and consideration of policy environments to enhance the framework’s applicability and effectiveness. Future research should address these areas to further improve the informed decision-making process regarding the sustainability of coastal engineering alternatives.

India, a predominantly rural country, relies on agriculture, with smallholder farmers owning a small portion of cultivable land. Maharashtra, a major cotton-growing region, faces water scarcity and drought events, leading to low crop yields and farmer indebtedness, followed by high suicide rates. Micro irrigation, such as drip and sprinkler systems, can improve water use productivity and mitigate the impacts of climate change on farmers’ incomes and thus livelihoods.

Psychosocial factors play a crucial role in farmers’ decisions to adopt irrigation technologies. Incorporating both contextual and psychosocial factors provides deeper insights into the adoption processes of various irrigation systems. The RANAS model has been recognized for behavior change strategies in developing countries and was applied in this research. It integrates psychosocial factors and is used to examine the impact of psychosocial factors on behavioral outcomes.

Regression analysis was performed on survey data in order to identify the factors that are assumed to have the ability to explain irrigation and micro irrigation adoption behavior. Four models were created, each focusing on a specific irrigation system: overall uptake, furrow irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and drip irrigation. This approach allowed for a deeper understanding of the influential factors for different irrigation systems and avoided the generalization of the results. In an attempt to broaden the understanding that can be obtained from regression results, qualitative, open-ended field interviews were conducted with farmers and key informants. The field insights revealed how the local context dynamics influence the factors that have a predictive capability on the adoption of micro irrigation systems.

Farmers’ adoption of drip irrigation systems is influenced primarily by their confidence in financial capabilities and technical skills. However, the adoption of sprinkler irrigation systems is more complex. In addition to financial and technical considerations, farmers also consider factors such as easy access to water sources, concerns about future water availability, and descriptive norms, i.e. the actions other farmers take. This indicates that the barrier to adopting drip systems is mainly financial, while the adoption of sprinkler systems also involves to a certain extent normative influence and water-related concerns.

The RANAS method is effective in identifying predictive variables for micro irrigation adoption by breaking down the complex problem into manageable components. However, it has limitations. It overlooks the dynamic nature of the adoption process and fails to consider the significance of factors at different stages of behavior change. It also underestimates the role of economic and institutional constraints, which can influence farmers’ investment capacities and perceptions. Additionally, the methods reliance on the design of survey questions may introduce bias and affect the reliability of the interpreted empirical data.

Field insights highlight the significance of context-specific factors and the integration of economic capacities in farmers' adoption decisions. Economic stability is crucial for implementing micro irrigation systems, and financially vulnerable farmers may be risk-averse toward new technology. Community support and reduced risk perception can facilitate adoption. Examining profit margins and market prices provides a better understanding of adoption than just income. Considering practical aspects such as crop suitability and awareness of climate change and market dynamics further explain adoption choices. Trust-building is essential to enhance farmers' willingness to adopt irrigation systems.

Climate change increases the urgency of spatial adaptation to extreme heat, pluvial floods and droughts in urban areas. To accelerate climate adaptation efforts, Dutch government organisations have agreed to work towards a climate adaptive and water resilient country by 2050 in the Delta Plan on Spatial Adaptation (DPSA). The implementation of Blue Green Infrastructures (BGI) in urban areas offers a solution to achieve climate adaptivity and water resilience by restoring the natural water balance, storing and infiltrating rainwater and having a cooling effect on their surroundings. In parallel with the ambition to adapt to the effects of climate change, there is a noticeable shift in transport modes in Dutch urban areas. Municipalities are actively promoting sustainable and healthy means of transport, such as walking and cycling, while reducing car dependency, through steering policies and active urban planning. This research examines the potential for climate adaptation, resulting from the transition to green mobility, in urban areas in the Netherlands. To explore this potential various research methods are applied as part of a desk study and an exploratory multiple case-study, based on six cases at three spatial scales (City, Neighbourhood, and Street scale). The cases provided insight in the spatial relation between the mobility transition and climate adaptation and examined whether this transition provides an opportunity to meet adaptation goals. City scale cases demonstrated the potential to increase green space in different mobility scenarios compared to the current state. This was especially apparent in highly urbanised areas with a strong need for climate adaptation. Multiple design scenarios with different mobility measures, such as parking space removal and driving lane reduction, were analysed to study this spatial relation. Detailed cases at a neighbourhood and street scale showed that reallocated urban area can provide the space needed for BGI (e.g. rain gardens, permeable pavement). In this way, climate adaptation goals related to heat and pluvial flooding can be met. The interview survey with water, mobility and climate adaptation experts from municipalities, revealed different perspectives on the relation between mobility and climate adaptation, and identified several challenges for effective implementation of BGI. This study addresses these challenges and presents several policy and research recommendations to effectively harness the climate adaptation potential arising from the mobility transition.

Natural disasters, related to water, in various forms have become more common in our daily lives and on our television screens. Within the past years, flooding has become a phenomenon which affects global, social, psychological and economic development. In Ghana there are major problems related to water and this has increased substantially over the years. Indeed, flooding is a major issue that is evident in urban sub-Saharan Africa and Ghana is no exception to this worrying phenomenon.
Poor and inadequate infrastructure and urban drainage systems have increased the risk of flooding in Accra, a city that has had an exponential increase in population. Flooding has affected the economy of Ghana, claimed the lives of humans and animals and has caused the outbreak of infectious diseases. However, current flood risk management approaches in Accra, which include demolishing affected buildings, have not been effective enough to reduce the impacts of Ghana’s floods.
This paper analyzes the current situation in Accra, the capital of Ghana, relating to floods, the factors that played a role in aggravating its effects, and how communities respond to flooding events. This is a main challenge Accra is dealing with and it is therefore imperative to look at the causes of flooding in Ghana as a country and propose an approach that can help mitigate the impact of floods. The challenge is to develop strategies for dealing specifically with increased vulnerability to flooding in order to reduce economic effects and save human lives, animals and properties. The study area consists of five local suburbs of Accra namely Agbogbloshie, Old Fadama, Adabraka, Weija and Alajo, which have been affected by floods. The effect of floods can be observed in an increased amount of flood events in these communities.
This thesis therefore uses the concept of resilience as the basis in solving this problem. The problem is defined using literature review, a case study, field inspections and interviews. Resilience at multi-level governance level is studied using an analytical framework to examine what policies government authorities have adopted to stimulate the adaptation of Accra into a more flood resilient urban environment. The changes need to be implemented to improve upon the flaws are also studied. The challenges involved in multi-level governance of Flood Risk Management in Ghana from the perspectives of the various actors are also examined. This will help in filling the knowledge gap in the literature on multi-level governance arrangements and the challenges involved for Ghana in the context of Flood Risk Management. To do this, a case study approach in which the interactions between the actors, stakeholders and the policy instruments are looked at, is applied.
The analytical framework is derived from the work of the five elements of flood risk management of Batica et al. (2013) and the two types of multi-level governance defined by Hooghe and Marks (2003). The findings from the analytical framework include key stakeholders in flood risk management as well as aspects of resilience and response and anticipation in flood risk management. Aspects of resilience in flood risk management strategies comprise Relief, Resist, Response, Recovery and Reflect strategies. The findings are used to analyze the effectiveness of existing strategies and recommend improvements. There are measures for resisting known flood risks, but their implementation is ineffective. Involvement of the local chiefs and key private sector organizations in flood risk management strategies in Accra would allow for advanced resilience regarding their responses to the impacts of land-use changes and the waste disposal in watercourses. This research shows that the effectiveness of flood risk management in Accra depends on implementation and enforcement.

In order to find the possibilities of implementation of e-flows in Dutch water management, it is necessary to first explore the current role of e-flows in projects, plans and policies. Data collection is primarily done through interviews. In addition to this, analysis of policy documents is used as a method of data collection. The collected qualitative data is analysed to provide an overview of the key factors of implementation in Dutch water management. Whether these factors provide challenges for implementation or act as enabling factors provides insight into the opportunities and methods for additional implementation of e-flows in Dutch water management. The results of this research show that e-flows efforts have been made in the Netherlands, but are not defined as e-flows. Examples are meandering of rivers to increase natural flow and water retention, removing weirs to stimulate fish migration and changing creek dimensions, a drought displacement series, increasing tidal dynamics and secondary channels. The motivation behind these projects often are European policies, the Water Framework Directive and Natura 2000. Key factor influencing e-flows implementation in Dutch water management are trade-offs of water users and functions, justification and support, government, management and success. Challenges rising when implementing e-flows are navigating politics dynamics, land availability, performing proper trade-offs, no natural flow reference and sectoral administration. Opportunities present in Dutch water management are a system approach, adaptive, integral management, raising justification and support and creating a coherent narrative. By using opportunities to navigate the challenges, recommendations for Dutch water management follow for further implementation of e-flows to reach ecological objectives. Recommendations are creating a coherent narrative around e-flows, using the nitrogen crisis and the effects of climate change to increase discussion on land use, water use and current lay-out of the water system, developing of better trade-off tools and facilitating change in government administration. In general, many similarities are present between e-flows implementation in Dutch water management and literature. These similarities mostly involve water management in general and the role of ecology in it, like the need for adaptive management, integral solutions and difficulties in measuring success. A lack of room as a large challenge for e-flows implementation is not encountered before in studies. In the USA, Australia and South-Africa, countries with the highest e-flows implementation rate, land use is much less intensive and water system modifications are more guided by the construction of (hydro-power) dams and large scale irrigation water use instead of shipping and flood control. It is likely the reason why dam flow regulation and water allocation receives much attention in e-flows literature instead of land availability.

This master thesis provides an approach to develop Adaptation Pathways to prevent local flooding of the Dutch national highway network, using the A2 between the Vught and Sint-Michielsgestel junctions as a case study. Local flooding as result of extreme precipitation has the highest urgency on the Dutch national highway network, due to its increasing chance of occurrence as a result of climate change and increasing consequences on the traffic flow. Hydrological modelling through a bucket approach, complemented by the groundwater dynamics of time series analysis, was done to quantify a range of tipping points between 6 and 60 mm/hr for the Adaptation Pathways, i.e. the hourly precipitation intensity at which water exceeds the edge line of the road for a precipitation event with a maximum return period of 10 years. This was done for three scenarios that embed uncertainties in interception and infiltration parameters and variations in the boundary conditions of groundwater levels. The bucket approach revealed that processes of interception by porous asphalt and sewer discharge are most influential to delay the tipping point, whereas infiltration is the least influential to delay the tipping point. The modelling results showed that adaptation measures that result in (1) an increase in the storage capacity of the catchment of the road (either on the road itself or in the verge) or (2) an increase in the discharge capacity of the catchment of the road are possible to control flooding of the case highway. Possible adaptation measures to increase the storage capacity on the road that were identified are cleaning porous asphalt, increasing the thickness of the porous asphalt and installing a Plastic Road. Possible adaptation measures to increase the storage capacity of the verge that were gathered are removing the top layer of the verge, installing an infiltration trench, raising the road and creating a descending verge. An increase in the discharge capacity of the catchment of the road can be established through a new sewer layout, increasing the sewer capacity and installing manholes with holes. A focus group revealed the interests of stakeholders with respect to flooding. (1) Traffic flow, (2) water buffering capacity, (3) water quality, (4) ecological value and (5) costs and maintenance reflect the criteria relevant to the stakeholders of the focus group and therefore provide information on the societal robustness of an adaptation measure. A scorecard ranked the potential adaptation measures according to the defined criteria which indicate the societal robustness of adaptation measures. Overall, the design of Adaptation Pathways for measures to prevent local flooding on the Dutch national highway network revealed a wide range of possible futures for the defined measures, in which the fulfillment of the T=10 year design storm that is associated with 2050 requirement is either already met or possible through the implementation of adaptation measures. The combination of the Adaptation Pathways map together with the scorecard provided an assessment of the climate resilience of the A2 as an integral part of the surrounding environment. It was found that the designed Adaptation Pathways promote incremental changes, such as cleaning porous asphalt and enlarging the sewer capacity, which enhance path-dependency. Moreover, it was discovered that using a combination of Adaptation Pathways with a scorecard provides insight on transformational adaptation measures that focus on achieving hydrologic neutrality. Hydrologic neutrality can be either be achieved by storing precipitation in the catchment of the road or by discharging precipitation to a nearby location out-side the catchment of the road, where it is used. The findings of the research can be generalized to others places of the Dutch national highway network, to the design of Adaptation Pathways elsewhere and to a variety of climate effects. Finally, as the transformational change towards hydrologically neutral highways complies with the principles of systematic water management of the 21st century and low impact development, one could argue for generalization towards hydrologically neutral highways.

Understanding the perceived stimuli and barriers by private homeowners is key knowledge to realise effective climate adaptive policy and consequently the adoption of SSCAM by homeowners. Q-methodology was used to unravel the perspectives of 25 homeowners from the Vruchtenbuurt, Den Haag and Hillegersberg-Zuid, Rotterdam on climate adaptation. The Model of Proactive Private Adaption to Climate Change structured the Q-methodology and was complemented with a policy analysis into climate adaptive policy of Den Haag and Rotterdam and a literature review of SSCAM. Four perspective groups, called factors, were identified amongst homeowners, : 1) Major problem, but what is the solution?!, 2) Together we make it better!, 3) I don't know how I am part of a solution and 4) Act when it is needed. The diversity of homeowners' perspectives implies no one-size-fits-all solution exists to stimulate adoption of SSCAM, two policy instruments which take this into account are proposed. Firstly, an extensive communication strategy is advised which clarifies the need for climate adaptive measures, establishes a relation with homeowners and stimulates homeowner's participation through an adaptive network. This should be complemented with an enabling instrument for garden and roof SSCAM, which can be tailored to the different barriers and stimuli perceived by the perspectives.

Due to population growth, a growing housing shortage, and a space shortage, it is expected that new urban developments in the Netherlands will mainly take place inside existing city boundaries and in high densities. At the same time, it is projected that the effects of climate change will increase, as climate change is expected to intensify. These two trends cause an increased climate risk for the liveability in these new urban areas. Climate adaptation is essential to reduce this risk. Climate adaptation planning is crucial to ensure the development of sustainable urban areas with high liveability standards for future and far-future inhabitants. However, traditional spatial design and -planning practice does not match with the climate adaptation task. If no climate adaptation action is taken now by spatial actors, the problems could be passed on to future generations. Hence, there is a need for a different way of working. A paradigm shift towards adaptive planning is needed to plan for climate adaptation and adaptive pathways are promising approaches to support this.

The objective of this research is to contribute to the search for new approaches that support climate adaptation planning. This research aims to investigate the usability of the Spatial Adaptive Policy Pathways (SAPP) approach for climate adaptation planning in new urban areas in the Netherlands. This research explores this approach to define the possibilities and points for improvement, through four main stages: analysis, identification, development, and application. To test the approach, Haven-Stad in Amsterdam has been selected as a case study area. The evaluation of the outputs and approach provide input to answer the main research question of this thesis: How can the Spatial Adaptive Policy Pathways approach support climate adaptation planning for new urban areas in the Netherlands?

The research has shown that the Spatial Adaptive Policy Pathways (SAPP) can support climate adaptation planning for new urban areas in the Netherlands. The SAPP approach brings forward a paradigm in which uncertainty is embraced and adaptivity is central. SAPPs do not show which trajectory is best to follow, but can address certain options, decision points, and consequences. In addition, it can bring different actors together through spatial- and governance elaborations. Thereby, SAPPs can form a basis for a broad dialogue about the future of an area in the short-term and long-term. It supports the development of adaptive designs and can address potential future governance challenges. The SAPP approach could thus be a promising approach to apply in practice. However, it would have to be further developed first.

Further development of the approach requires more testing at different case study locations and testing in practice. More research needs to be done on the applicability of the approach at different scales and the potential integration of scales and climate stresses.

The Blue Nile is characterised by growing tensions between Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt related to increasing demands for water and upcoming unilateral developments. Growing efforts towards basin wide cooperation from the international and scientific community have led to the development of a common decision support tool, the Nile Basin Decision Support System (NBDSS), but applications are still limited. This thesis assumes that a discrepancy between values included in the design of the NBDSS and values that actually play a role in decision making might contribute to the lack of implementation. This assumption involves two important research gaps, namely the absence of a clear overview of values of decision makers in the Blue Nile countries and the capabilities of the NBDSS in considering all values in decision making. This thesis aims to fill these research gaps and finally test the assumption by evaluating the NBDSS from a value perspective. The evaluation uses four elements, namely design requirements to allow value considerations, design values of the NBDSS, actor values and associated potential conflicts and synergies. This thesis produced two main results that are valuable to the academic community, namely a list of values associated with water resources for each Blue Nile country and an evaluation of the NBDSS from a value perspective.
Literature review resulted in five design requirements: transparency, participatory development, flexibility, useful information and reasonable value judgements. Document analysis and model assessment yielded nine design values that should constitute the core functionalities of the system, namely economy, environment, equity, inclusiveness, international cooperation, society, sustainability, trust and usability. However, none of the analysed documents on the NBDSS talks about value considerations explicitly...

Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage (ATES) is a geothermal technique that is an important component in the transition towards renewable energy in the heating and cooling industry, which accounts for half of the world's energy consumption. However, the technology has not yet been implemented in many countries. The main reason is that extensive preparation and site-specific analysis are required for the implementation of ATES systems and many stakeholders need to be involved. These stakeholders are typically unfamiliar with the technology and unaware of the potential applicability. To stimulate stakeholders and the decision-making process within the ATES sector, several studies emphasise the necessity of examining the potential of ATES technology on a local level. Such potential studies support ATES decision-makers as they evaluate the technology, potential scale and its commercial viability.

The objective of this research is therefore to develop a methodology to determine the technical and commercial potential of ATES while incorporating local characteristics. Until now, ATES feasibility studies have mainly been focused on large-scale ATES suitability. For generating more representative results, however, this new methodology also incorporates local geohydrological conditions and the interests of and restrictions imposed by its local ATES stakeholders. The methodology can be applied globally to every region that has available aquifers and moderate climate conditions. The developed methodology in this study is applied to the region of New York State (NYS). High expected energy savings and promising geothermal trends are among the main reasons for this geographic selection. Moreover, no commercial ATES project is yet in operation in the US, a country of which the potential energy savings are expected to be highest in the world. A successful introduction of the technology in NYS could therefore function as a valuable use-case for many other states in the US and also for other countries.

Firstly, the stakeholders in NYS are identified and analysed in this study. They are assessed based on their level of influence, attitude and their ability to solve current barriers that are preventing ATES from being adopted. This analysis indicated that geothermal architects are the most influential stakeholders and are therefore essential to engage for the successful implementation of ATES in NYS.

Secondly, the technical and commercial ATES potential is examined by analysing local geohydrological conditions, building characteristics and the identified requirements from geothermal architects. It is concluded that over 99\% of all buildings in Nassau County (around 400,000) could technically receive the required amount of heat and cold if an ATES system was installed for those buildings. Moreover, it is found that for buildings with ATES systems, heating is twice as efficient as conventional methods in Nassau County and cooling is even 10-30 times more efficient, depending on ATES design parameters. Furthermore, it is concluded that ATES is already a commercially attractive solution for 385 separate buildings in Nassau County, accounting for an estimated 10\% of the total heating and cooling demand of buildings in the county. This number is expected to increase significantly when multiple buildings are connected to a single ATES system.

This research shows that ATES is a technically and commercially viable geothermal solution for buildings in NYS. Therefore, it is critical that ATES is included in the existing evaluation tools developed and currently used by the city and state authorities of New York. The methodology developed in this study is characterised by the inclusion of local characteristics such as the interests and requirements of a region's key stakeholders and local geohydrological conditions, which are found to be essential to generate realistic and accurate insights into the technical and commercial potential of ATES. The model that has been developed is scalable and can be applied to other regions and the accuracy of the model can be increased further by also incorporating groundwater models in the analysis. All in all, the methodology developed in this study offers valuable support for local decision-makers and is an effective resource to increase the adoption of ATES technology worldwide.

Of the world's population, 59% of the people are not connected to a sewer system and use on-site sanitation (OSS) systems. A large amount of these systems is unsafe. The ultimate goal of this research is to gain knowledge on manners to improve and monitor the safety of on-site sanitation (OSS) systems. The performance and safety of OSS systems are highly dependent on the level of faecal sludge in OSS system which is largely dependent on the accumulation rate of the sludge. However, scientists have not found a simple method to assess the accumulation rate of sludge. Knowing the sludge accumulation rate and therefore, knowing how quickly a tank fills, makes it possible to the necessary time between two emptying events or, with other words, the required emptying frequency. With the research presented in this thesis, a dynamical approach to viewing and assessing the status of OSS systems is developed in the form of a model by combining sludge accumulation theory and only a small number of in-field measurements. The modelled simulation of sludge accumulation shows highly similar results to empirical sludge accumulation studies. On the basis of the model, also a user-friendly tool has been developed that allows tank owners, policymakers or regulators to get personal recommendations regarding the emptying frequency of their OSS systems. This offers a new approach and with that an improvement of the way OSS system can be safely managed and monitored. This thesis provides evidence for the feasibility of constructing a numerical model as a measure to simulate sludge accumulation in OSS systems that can lead to emptying frequency recommendations. The results of this thesis can help in obtaining safe sanitation throughout the world and is aimed to contribute to achieving the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goal 6.2.

Ephemeral rivers are common hydrological features in Southern Africa where periods of up to 9 months occur, without significant rainfall. These rivers are important in the Kitui region of Kenya, where water shortage impedes rural and urban development. The seasonal rivers of Kitui provide suitable water for domestic, livestock and agricultural use, particularly small-scale irrigation. A majority of the population of Kitui county depends on the ephemeral river for water supply. In dry periods, water levels drop and water can only be found in scoop holes (holes dug in the riverbed). The water shortage is where NaBWIG, an abbreviation for Nature-based water infrastructures in Ethiopia and Kenya for #GlobalGoals (NaBWIG), focuses on. Its goal is to increase resilience through sustainable water supply with the use of stored water within ephemeral sand rivers (Karimi, 2018). This research is part of NaBWIG where, based on 2 months fieldwork trip to Kenya, an evaluation was done using Q-methodology. This study aimed to define which elements of water access are valued by people who use water from sand storage dams in two sub-regions in Kitui – Kenya. This research revealed the broad definition of access to water, specifically when zooming in to local sand dam utilization. Main elements that seem to be most important like distance, time, water quantity, water quality and also reliability of a water source. Other elements are also related to water access such as social capital, income and terrain. Results suggest that ‘one community’ does not exist in either of the regions. The results from the Q-method show different perspectives within both communities on both domestic and agricultural water use, with specifics of perspectives depending on whether one takes the respondents as a whole or analyses them per community. In both regions, comparable elements arise, but different groups appear too. These two ‘communities’ are diverse in perspectives and one must look at both regions with different ‘lenses’ as their position is different from each other. The researcher may force these people into groups, which then are called a community, but in reality, is still a group of people with different interests. The alignment of these different factor groups is important to ensure the community benefit the most of a sand dam structure, which does not stop after construction. This research aimed at creating a better understanding of the interplay of multiple factors regarding water access and provided a more thorough understanding of the dynamics of local communities and their appreciation of water access regarding sand storage dams.

Besides wastewater and rainwater, the sewers in the Netherlands also transport a lot of water that is not supposed to be in the sewer. This water is called extraneous water and is the result of unwanted discharges in the sewer system. This could be groundwater infiltrating leaky sewer pipes, or pumped from construction sites directly into the sewer. Or it could be surface water flowing in from wrong illicit connections. In the Netherlands, all this extra water account for a quarter of all the influent that enters the treatment plants.

This thesis studies the effect of a reduction of extraneous water in the influent on the workings of the treatment plant. For this two cases are studied: the treatment plant of Dokhaven in Rotterdam and Willem Annapolder in Kapelle. Dokhaven is a high loaded treatment plant with an A-B configuration that treats the wastewater from the center of Rotterdam in which it is located. Willem Annapolder is a low loaded treatment plant with biological phosphor removal and pre-denitrification and treats the wastewater from different cities and municipalities in its surroundings connected by long pressure mains. Both cases are known to receive a lot of extraneous water in their influent.

Two models were made for each case study: one that simulates the dynamics of the influent concentrations and another that describes the water treatment processes in the treatment plant. After calibration, the models of the treatment plant were run with a different influent in which the extraneous water was reduced.

Previous studies have indicated that a reduction in extraneous water leads only to small changes in the effluent concentration, but due to the reduced flow leads to significant reduction in the effluent load. In the case of Dokhaven the models show similar results. In the case of Willem Annapolder, the effects of the pressure mains was also taken into account. This caused the resulting effluent ammonia concentration to increase when extraneous water was reduced. The reduction in clean extraneous water increases the dry weather concentration of the pollutants in the pressure mains. When a rain event occurs, this water with high concentration is pushed towards the treatment plant with increased flow, which causes increased peak loads at the start of every heavy rain event.
Although the overall nitrogen load on the effluent was also decreased at Willem Annapolder when the extraneous water was reduced, the pressure mains resulted in a much lower decrease than in the case of Dokhaven. This thesis thus shows that it is important to take into account the sewer system when evaluating the effects of reducing extraneous water.

Flooding currently affects 100 million people on average per year globally, and the number is increasing. The performance of dikes under extreme conditions is crucial to societal flood protection. By deploying measurement instruments in and around the embankment, more accurate insights into the actual status of the dike can be achieved that can be used to prevent the failure of a dike.
Despite growing awareness of the potential of dike monitoring techniques and effort put into the development and testing of instruments, implementation of instrumental dike monitoring into regular practice remains scarce. The objective of this thesis is therefore to shed light on the factors that influence the implementation of innovation in dike monitoring practice by: (1) assessing and analysing the barriers and drivers for implementation of innovation in dike monitoring, by studying a case study of novel optic fibre pressure sensors and trying to influence this practice by (2) designing a communication oriented intervention for the development phase that enhances the implementation process.

This research aims to identify the key stakeholders, explain factors that influence water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) behaviours, determine the chance of bacterial contamination in water, and hygiene and sanitary practises in East Sumba. The interview results show that DinKes (health agency), PAMSIMAS (rural water company), and the village board are the key players that connect the upper administrative units to the local communities. The data obtained also show that the root causes that influence the WASH condition are low education level, upbringing norms, weak economy, and geography. The water quality testing results show that in terms of E. coli 14% and 12% of the respondents had a high chance of contamination in their water source and household respectively. These numbers are 25% and 29% in terms of total coliforms. Approximately 59% respondents still use poor sanitation facilities, which includes open defecation (33%) and unimproved latrines (26%). The other 14% respondents are listed under limited sanitation service, and 27% of the respondents had their own toilet, however, it is difficult to conclude if these people fall under the basic or safely managed category of sanitation services.

Site selection is a critical factor in the ability to provide safe and healthy environment for refugees. At the outset of an emergency, limited resource and time create large planning uncertainties and current refugee sites’ assessments based on field visit are no longer adequate. The selection of unsuitable locations triggers a number of issues such as environmental degradation, competition for scarce resources and, exploitation of water sources. These can be reduced through a rational refugee allocation decision process. The question that arises is, can the refugee allocation process be supported by a structured decision-making (SDM) approach and more specifically, by a portfolio decision analysis (PDA) model? Focusing on water security criteria, this study presents the initial phases of the SDM-approach intended to ensure a more sustainable allocation of newly-arrived refugees among new and/or existing hosing sites. To this end, a procedural tool for supporting WASH (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene) officers in the site assessment is proposed. This was obtained based on 15 semi-structured interviews and questionnaires carried out in a global stakeholder environment, in order to make the SDM framework applicable to other settings.
The generic procedural tool was tested in a case-study in south-western Uganda by applying a portfolio decision analysis model. Local and global data were combined with stakeholder preferences to predict the performance of diverse sets of alternatives. The latter were generated according to different combinations of numbers of refugees, hosting locations and percentage of water extracted from surface water, groundwater and rain water. To identify efficient portfolios, we used the Robust Portfolio Modelling - Decisions software. Results showed that overlooked solutions outperforms over the current allocation strategy. In specific, the scatter of newly arrived refugees showed the highest scores on availability of water, socio-economic costs and host communities' advantages. The proposed framework provides also options for the optimal repartition of the future water extraction among available water sources, aiming to avoid their depletion while preserving sustainable costs of the water services.

The Dutch drinking water benchmark has been carried out every three years since 1997. In 2011, the benchmark was incorporated into the Drinking Water Act. As a result the benchmark switched from a voluntarily benchmark executed by the Association of Dutch water companies to a mandatory benchmark executed by the Human Environment and Transport Inspectorate. In addition, the drinking water companies have to hand in an improvement plan 6 months after the benchmark publication. Based on interviews with benchmark coordinators of drinking water companies the influence of the inclusion of the benchmark into the Drinking Water Act on the improvement driven part of the benchmark is studied. For this purpose, the following four issues are discussed: changes experienced as a consequence of the shifting from a voluntarily to a mandatory benchmark, influence of mandatory character of the benchmark on the drivers, identified by de Goede et al. (2016), the role of the improvement plans and a new instrument to stimulate improvement.

The differences between the voluntarily and mandatory benchmark are identified: the benchmark switched from being only an improvement driven instrument to an instrument for accountability as well and the drinking water organizations lost control over the development of the benchmark. The influence of the mandatory character on the drivers for performance improvement have been determined: only the driver 'enhanced transparency' is (positively) influenced. In order for the improvement plans to be able to have a positive effect on the stimulation of improvement, a feedback system should be implemented and the publications of the benchmark and improvement plans have to be faster. The benchmark is still thought to be useful, although an adaptive benchmark could stimulate improvement again.