Augmented reality (AR) has shown potential in computer-aided surgery. It allows for the visualization of hidden anatomical structures as well as assists in navigating and locating surgical instruments at the surgical site. Various modalities (devices and/or visualizations) have been used in the literature, but few studies investigated the adequacy/superiority of one modality over the other. For instance, the use of optical see-through (OST) HMDs has not always been scientifically justified. Our goal is to compare various visualization modalities for catheter insertion in external ventricular drain and ventricular shunt procedures. We investigate two AR approaches: (1) 2D approaches consisting of a smartphone and a 2D window visualized through an OST (Microsoft HoloLens 2), and (2) 3D approaches consisting of a fully aligned patient model and a model that is adjacent to the patient and is rotationally aligned using an OST. 32 participants joined this study. For each visualization approach, participants were asked to perform five insertions after which they filled NASA-TLX and SUS forms. Moreover, the position and orientation of the needle with respect to the planning during the insertion task were collected. The results show that participants achieved a better insertion performance significantly under 3D visualizations, and the NASA-TLX and SUS forms reflected the preference of participants for these approaches compared to 2D approaches.

Purpose: In minimally invasive spring-assisted craniectomy, surgeons plan the surgery by manually locating the cranial sutures. However, this approach is prone to error. Augmented reality (AR) could be used to visualize the cranial sutures and assist in the surgery planning. The purpose of our work is to develop an AR-based system to visualize cranial sutures, and to assess the accuracy and usability of using AR-based navigation for surgical guidance in minimally invasive spring-assisted craniectomy. Methods: An AR system was developed that consists of an electromagnetic tracking system linked with a Microsoft HoloLens. The system was used to conduct a study with two skull phantoms. For each phantom, five sutures were annotated and visualized on the skull surface. Twelve participants assessed the system. For each participant, model alignment using six anatomical landmarks was performed, followed by the participant delineation of the visualized sutures. At the end, the participants filled a system usability scale (SUS) questionnaire. For evaluation, an independent optical tracking system was used and the delineated sutures were digitized and compared to the CT-annotated sutures. Results: For a total of 120 delineated sutures, the distance of the annotated sutures to the planning reference was 2.4 ± 1.2 mm. The average delineation time per suture was 13 ± 5 s. For the system usability questionnaire, an average SUS score of 73 was obtained. Conclusion: The developed AR-system has good accuracy (average 2.4 mm distance) and could be used in the OR. The system can assist in the pre-planning of minimally invasive craniosynostosis surgeries to locate cranial sutures accurately instead of the traditional approach of manual palpation. Although the conducted phantom study was designed to closely reflect the clinical setup in the OR, further clinical validation of the developed system is needed and will be addressed in a future work.

Optical-based navigation systems are widely used in surgical interventions. However, despite their great utility and accuracy, they are expensive and require time and effort to setup for surgeries. Moreover, traditional navigation systems use 2D screens to display instrument positions causing the surgeons to look away from the operative field. Head mounted displays such as the Microsoft HoloLens may provide an attractive alternative for surgical navigation that also permits augmented reality visualization. The HoloLens is equipped with multiple sensors for tracking and scene understanding. Mono and stereo-vision in the HoloLens have been both reported to be used for marker tracking, but no extensive evaluation on accuracy has been done to compare the two approaches. The objective of our work is to investigate the tracking performance of various camera setups in the HoloLens, and to study the effect of the marker size, marker distance from camera, and camera resolution on marker locating accuracy. We also investigate the speed and stability of marker pose for each camera setup. The tracking approaches are evaluated using ArUco markers. Our results show that mono-vision is more accurate in marker locating than stereo-vision when high resolution is used. However, this comes at the expense of higher frame processing time. Alternatively, we propose a combined low-resolution mono-stereo tracking setup that outperforms each tracking approach individually and is comparable to high resolution mono tracking, with a mean translational error of 1.8 ± 0.6mm for 10cm marker size at 50cm distance. We further discuss our findings and their implications for navigation in surgical interventions.