SESAME (SEntinel-1 SAR companion Multistatic Explorer) is a passive SAR satellite mission proposed for the ESA Earth Explorer Program. SESAME comprises two receive-only C-band SAR satellites flying in close formation to build a single-pass SAR interferometer (SP-InSAR) using the active signal of the European Sentinel-1 satellite. The SESAME mission addresses applications in geoscience and climate research that require repeat measurements of high precision elevation data over land surfaces including ice covered areas and forests, exploiting the SP-InSAR and multistatic observation geometry of the satellite formation. The objectives, the measurement approach and geo-biophysical products of the mission are described.

This paper provides a compact overview of SESAME, a mission concept in which two receive-only small Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) satellites flying in close formation would allow single-pass interferometric observations using Sentinel-1 as transmitter.

This paper introduces the concept of a fractionated MirrorSAR which is based on a set of mutually separated transmitter and receiver satellites. As opposed to previously published bi- and multistatic SAR systems, the receiver satellites are considerably simplified, as their main functionality is reduced to a kind of microwave mirror (or space transponder) which routes the radar echoes towards the transmitter. The forwarded radar signals are then coherently demodulated within the transmitter by using the same oscillator that had been used for radar pulse generation. This avoids the necessity of a bidirectional phase synchronization link as currently employed in TanDEM-X. Since the needs for fully equipped radar receivers, on-board memory and downlink are also overcome, the weight and costs of the receiver satellites can be significantly reduced. This allows for a scaling of their number without cost explosion, thereby paving the way for novel applications like multi-baseline SAR interferometry and single-pass tomography. Several additional opportunities make the MirrorSAR concept even more attractive. First, the separation of the transmitter and receiver front-ends reduces not only RF losses by avoiding switches and circulators, but it may also lower the peak power in the transmitter satellite by employing a frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) illumination. This simplifies the design of the high-power amplifier and increases its efficiency. Second, the opportunity for continuous radar data collection enables new modes for the imaging of ultra-wide swaths with very high resolution, thereby overcoming an inherent limitation of conventional monostatic SAR systems. Third, the joint availability of all receiver signals in a centralized node offers new opportunities for efficient data compression, as the multistatic radar signals from close satellite formations are characterized by a high degree of mutual redundancy. Fourth, the use of a sufficiently separated transmitter satellite can avoid the risk for mutual illumination, which challenges the design and operation of fully-active multistatic SAR systems. Further advantages arise from the scalability and reconfigurability, which support new redundancy concepts and pave at the same time the way to new modes like MIMO-SAR tomography.

Companion SAR missions offer a cost-effective solution to enhance the added value of existing SAR satellites. In particular, they offer new possibilities to extend the observation space and provide one or several single-pass interferometric channels for the acquisitions. The paper aims to provide a description of an end-to-end performance simulation for companion SAR missions, including the evaluation of two exemplary configurations under realistic conditions and with the incorporation of the major error sources affecting these systems. A critical discussion of the results will be included of the final version of the paper drawing from the analysis relevant conclusions for the design of payload and concepts for future companion SAR missions.

This paper presents the correlating synthetic aperture radar (CoSAR) technique, a novel radar imaging concept to observe statistical properties of fast decorrelating surfaces. A CoSAR system consists of two radars with a relative motion in the along-track (cross-range) dimension. The spatial autocorrelation function of the scattered signal can be estimated by combining quasi-simultaneously received radar echoes. By virtue of the Van Cittert-Zernike theorem, estimates of this autocorrelation function for different relative positions can be processed by generating images of several properties of the scene, including the normalized radar cross section, Doppler velocities, and surface topography. Aside from the geometric performance, a central aspect of this paper is a theoretical derivation of the radiometric performance of CoSAR. The radiometric quality is proportional to the number of independent samples available for the estimation of the spatial correlation, and to the ratio between the CoSAR azimuth resolution and the real-aperture resolution. A CoSAR mission concept is provided where two geosynchronous radar satellites fly at opposing sides of a quasi-circular trajectory. Such a mission could provide bidaily images of the ocean backscatter, mean Doppler, and surface topography at resolutions on the order of 500 m over wide areas.

This paper puts forward a reverse backprojection algorithm for the moderately efficient generation of raw data of natural scenes acquired with general SAR geometries; in particular, we are interested in monostatic and bistatic geosynchronous (GSO) geometries. The backprojection algorithm has the advantage of being arbitrarily precise for all acquisition modes and systems, and allows an exact accommodation of space-variant effects introduced by topography and the propagation through the atmosphere. Its exactness allows both to simulate any real scenarios and understand further optimization potentials. The reverse backprojection algorithm is presented and analyzed in the following pages. The algorithm is also validated using both simulated clutter and data from the Sentinel-1 mission.

Correlating SAR (CoSAR) has been recently proposed as a geosynchronous remote sensing mission capable of delivering continental coverage of ocean surfaces with a high repeat cycle. The main specific measurements provided by CoSAR are estimates of the normalised radar cross section (NRCS), Doppler shifts, and surface topography with higher resolution than microwave radiometers and larger coverage than state-of-the-art LEO SAR constellations. This paper analyses the specific geometrical characteristics of CoSAR surveys and discusses the challenges of efficient CoSAR image formation approaches. The space-variance of CoSAR surveys is expected to be small, hence CoSAR image formation can benefit from the available knowledge in efficient bistatic and multistatic SAR image formation approaches.

Tandem-L is a highly innovative SAR satellite mission for the global observation of dynamic processes on the Earth's surface with hitherto unknown quality and resolution. Thanks to its novel imaging techniques and its unprecedented acquisition capacity, Tandem-L will deliver urgently needed information for the solution of pressing scientific questions in the areas of the biosphere, geosphere, cryosphere and hydrosphere. The feasibility of Tandem-L has been analyzed and confirmed in the scope of a phase A study, which has been conducted in close cooperation between the German Aerospace Center (DLR) and the German space industry. This paper provides an overview of the Tandem-L mission concept and summarizes the actual development status.

This paper proposes the wrapped staring spotlight (WSS) SAR imaging mode, which is a new method to extend the azimuth steering capability for phased array SAR to achieve either an improved azimuth geometric or radiometric resolution. It investigates the utility of steering directions with main lobe gains that are smaller than that of the grating lobes and exposes how these directions can be exploited. Furthermore, two methods are proposed to reduce the speckle and the image noise at once, i.e., the Look-Normalized Pattern Correction and the Ω-weighting. Based on two example TerraSAR-X WSS acquisitions, the image performance of extended and point targets is discussed.

Correlating SAR (CoSAR) is an innovative remote sensing concept which delivers large-scale coverage of ocean surfaces with a high repeat cycle. The main specific measurements provided by CoSAR are estimates of the normalised radar cross section (NRCS), Doppler shifts, and surface topography with higher resolution than microwave radiometers and larger coverage than state-of-The-Art LEO SAR constellations. This paper analyses the specific geometrical characteristics of CoSAR surveys, keeping an eye in the future development of efficient CoSAR image formation approaches. Far from being foreign to SAR, the paper will show that CoSAR image formation can benefit from the available knowledge in efficient bistatic and multistatic SAR image formation approaches.

The paper proposes wrapped staring spotlight SAR, a method to extend the azimuth steering capability for phased array SAR systems. Based on two TerraSAR-X (TSX) wrapped staring spotlight example acquisitions, the image performance of point and extended and targets is discussed. In the provided examples, the steering is extended until the gain of the grating lobes becomes much stronger than the gain into steering direction. By this, it becomes possible to improve the azimuth resolution by a factor of two when compared to that of the starring spotlight mode implemented in the operational TSX processing chain.

Companion SAR missions offer a cost-effective solution to boost the performance and capabilities of existing SAR missions. In particular, a whole suite of coherent single-pass observations become feasible, allowing for the interferometric and tomographic exploitation of the received data. Interferometric and tomographic measurements are however very sensitive to even the slightest degradations in the phase of the received data, and impose stringent requirements on the calibration concept of the mission. Weakly-synchronised companion SAR missions may have significant residual clock errors, which challenge the attainment of this requirements. We put forward an innovative calibration concept based on autonomous (data-based) calibration at different product levels and present an estimation of the expected performance for ESA's SAOCOM/CS mission.

This paper reviews advanced SAR system architectures and modes for high-resolution ultra-wide-swath SAR imaging. The comparison includes both direct radiating array antennas and reflector-based system configurations operating in either a single-Transmit multiple-receive (SIMO) or a multiple-Transmit multiple-receive (MIMO) mode.

Companion SAR missions offer a cost-effective solution to boost the performance and capabilities of existing SAR missions. With the use of companion satellites, a whole suite of coherent single-pass observations become feasible, allowing for the interferometric and tomographic exploitation of the received data. Interferometric and tomographic measurements are however very sensitive to even the slightest degradations in the phase of the received data, and impose stringent requirements on the calibration concept of the mission. Weakly-synchronised companion SAR missions may have significant residual clock errors, which challenge the attainment of this requirements. We put forward an innovative calibration concept based on autonomous (data-based) calibration at different product levels and present an estimation of the expected performance for ESA's SAOCOM/CS mission.

The signal-to-noise ratio of a radar system is described through the well-known radar equation, which can be adapted to apply to imaging Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). Extension to multi-channel SAR systems utilizing digital beam-forming turns out to be treacherous; the pivotal question being, if and how to include the gain of the multiple antenna apertures. This paper puts an effort into answering this question in a simple and comprehensible, yet mathematically rigorous way.

ALOS-Next/Tandem-L is a proposal for a highly innovative L-band SAR satellite mission for the global observation of dynamic processes on the Earth's surface with hitherto unparalleled quality and resolution. It is based on a collaboration between DLR and JAXA which started with a pre-phase A study in 2013 and is currently undergoing a phase A study. Thanks to the novel imaging techniques and the vast recording capacity with up to 8 Tbytes/day, it will provide vital information for solving pressing scientific questions in the biosphere, geosphere, cryosphere, and hydrosphere. By this, the new L-band SAR mission will make an essential contribution for a better understanding of the Earth system and its dynamics. ALOS-Next/Tandem-L will, moreover, open new opportunities for risk analysis, disaster management and environmental monitoring by employing especially designed acquisition modes and techniques in combination with a reconfigurable tandem satellite configuration and an L-band SAR instrument with advanced digital beamforming techniques.

Instrument calibration has ever been essential to synthetic aperture radar. This paper reviews the calibration functionality of current state-of-the-art spaceborne SAR and then proceeds to suggest calibration strategies for future SAR systems. These systems will incorporate multi-channel digital beamforming capabilities which offer new opportunities but also challenges for digital calibration. At the same time, the increased complexity of instrument calibration can not be extrapolated to future systems. This requires a reconsideration of the calibration strategy for spaceborne SAR. The paper is seen as a step in this direction.

In this paper the science requirements for the mapping of dynamic processes on the Earth surfaces is presented. From the science requirements and the need of a regular and continuous global surface cover for most of the applications a dedicated mission concept has been developed. The presented results are a summary of pre-phase A mission study that is performed in a bilateral cooperation between the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) and the German Aerospace Center (DLR). Tandem-L is an innovative mission proposal that will provide a unique, world-wide database for a better understanding of the Earth system dynamics in important research and societal relevant fields, as well as enabling a multitude of innovative applications.

Bistatic and multistatic SAR constellations offer increased performance at the expense of increased operational complexity. Due to geometric or cost constraints, multistatic SAR constellations might be forced to operate in a partially cooperative manner, i.e., without a direct synchronisation link. In demanding scenarios, like high-resolution bistatic SAR imaging or cross-platform SAR interferometry or tomography, the data need undergo a calibration step to compensate the lack of synchronisation between transmitter and receiver master clocks. Autonomous synchronisation, based on the inversion of the phase and positioning errors of the bistatic SAR images caused by the lack of synchronisation, is used to calibrate the time and phase references of the system with the sole help of the received radar data, which drastically reduces the requirements on the hardware of the system.