This paper describes a data driven urban canopy model that can be coupled with detailed building energy models. The data driven model is used to assess the outdoor air temperature and humidity in a street canyon considering as inputs weather conditions at the atmospheric layer, the surface temperature of surrounding building facades and the street, and the heat released from the use of air-conditioning. Predictions made by the model were tested using measurements of the outdoor air temperature and humidity collected between April and August 2019 in Singapore. Results show that the model estimates the outdoor air temperature with a similar accuracy than others that were validated using the same input and test data, while providing estimates with a higher temporal resolution and considering urban morphology with a higher fidelity. They also demonstrate that the model can predict the impact of waste heat releases and cool pavement on the outdoor air temperature and building energy consumption. In the future, vegetation could be considered as an input of the model if the land surface temperature is measured using an infrared thermal camera. Another improvement would be to define weather conditions at the atmospheric layer from rooftop measurements or a climate model.@en

This paper introduces Property Valuation Application Domain Extension (ADE) within CityGML 3.0, aiming to integrate relevant indoor and outdoor 3D variables (cost estimation, view quality, etc.) for accurate property valuation. Current models lack the necessary features for this specific application. Leveraging IFC data for indoor elements, this ADE extends CityGML, addressing the existing gap. This paper identifies and categorizes data requirements, leading to the conceptualization and development of the model. By enriching CityGML 3.0 with IFC data, the approach introduces new features like the "Property Unit" to ensure adaptability across diverse valuation scenarios. Despite encountering data integrability challenges, we here commit to refining the model and overcoming these obstacles. A preliminary implementation using CityJSON demonstrates successful integration and paves the way for future implementation. These include developing an API platform and establishing an official repository to facilitate practical usability and scalability. This research significantly contributes to advancing property valuation processes by providing accurate valuations for stakeholders and promoting the use of 3D urban data in domain-specific extensions.@en

Optimizing the built environment via simulations of building models hinges on standardizing data acquisition. In this research, we put forward distinct levels of detail for geometry and material inputs, specifically tailored for indoor daylight applications. We primarily focus on understanding the uncertainties arising from imprecise estimations of material optical properties and incomplete geometrical inputs in climate-based indoor daylight simulations. Employing a Monte Carlo approach, we analyzed six office and teaching spaces, creating 20 variations for each by altering geometrical completeness and material accuracy. The technique of excluding non-permanent objects below certain sizes in four graduated steps was used to derive and test the impact of various geometrical levels of detail. Our findings reveal that different levels of geometrical completeness lead to errors ranging from 1.08% to 18.05%. Additionally, a twofold increase in simulation time was noted when geometrical detail was enhanced relative to the most basic model. Errors stemming from imprecise definitions of material optical properties showed a normal distribution. The uncertainty in simulation outcomes showed a linear rise with increasing input material uncertainty, lying between 10% to 30%, depending on space configurations. We observed heightened uncertainty near openings, attributed to window transmittance effects. The research underscores that daylight predictions are markedly more sensitive to transmittance uncertainties than to those in reflectance, regardless of the window-to-floor ratio. These insights may help to guide a more efficient data acquisition process of indoor spaces for daylight simulations.

@en

3D modeling of indoor spaces is a prerequisite for daylight simulation, and the accuracy of the 3D models has a significant impact on the simulation. The goal of this study was to quantify the errors caused by modeling indoor spaces at different accuracy levels to find the optimal balance between the reliability of the results and labor investment. For this purpose, we introduce a level of detail (LOD) concept for indoor spaces based on the size of non-permanent indoor objects by inclusion and exclusion from the simulation scene. The errors corresponding to models with low accuracies are measured by climate-based simulation using an improved two-phase method. Our results show that inaccurate modeling of indoor spaces causes between 10-70% error in TAI with 25% median across all spaces.@en

In the evolving landscape of digitalization, automating building permit processes are crucial for municipalities and other governmental bodies. Our research addresses the complexities of modeling digital building permit regulations, considering the level of the information needs (LoIN) for geometry-based regulations in four municipalities (Prague, Lisbon, Vila Nova de Gaia, and Ascoli Piceno) as case study. We propose a methodology and guidelines for geometrical building modeling, addressing challenges of integrating geoinformation with Building Information Modeling (BIM) for environmental based digital building permit (DBP) checks. This paper provides BIM-IFC geometrical interpretation choices, ensuring a seamless conversion into 3D city models. It offers insights for software companies, developers, and standardization organizations towards in implementing DBP checks, and preliminary results for a future scalable approach.@en

This paper discusses the reconstruction of LoD2 building models from 2D and 3D data for large-scale urban environments. Traditional methods involve the use of LiDAR point clouds, but due to high costs and long intervals associated with acquiring such data for rapidly developing areas, researchers have started exploring the use of point clouds generated from (oblique) aerial images. However, using such point clouds for traditional plane detection-based methods can result in significant errors and introduce noise into the reconstructed building models. To address this, this paper presents a method for extracting rooflines from true orthophotos using line detection for the reconstruction of building models at the LoD2 level. The approach is able to extract relatively complete rooflines without the need for pre-labeled training data or pre-trained models. These lines can directly be used in the LoD2 building model reconstruction process. The method is superior to existing plane detection-based methods and state-of-the-art deep learning methods in terms of the accuracy and completeness of the reconstructed building. Our source code is available at https://github.com/tudelft3d/Roofline-extraction-from-orthophotos.@en

With the growing demand for sustainable accountability, the European Directive 2014/24/EU (EU 2014) pushes architects to deliver Building Information Models (BIM) as a part of procurement processes for public buildings. In the Netherlands, BIM model data is relevant to the building permitting process, which involves an environmental performance calculation (MPG). This assessment takes into consideration the embodied carbon of materials in a building. Although this analysis is performed by a qualified expert in late design phases, architects benefit from integrating carbon data in early design decision-making. Design methods supported by Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) values are needed before involving expert collaborators, and not only when applying for a building permit. The existing carbon assessment tools require detailed data from BIM models, which are often not available at early design phases. Simplified tools have been discussed in theory, and explored in their potential applications, however, there lacks scientific literature discussing the hurdles designers face in their attempt to create such tools in practice, for their internal use throughout early design phases. This paper focuses on the architecture professional practice and design methods supported by digital and computational technologies, regarding embodied carbon data. It investigates the challenges in integrating embodied carbon data in the design workflow, through the development of a digital tool made by designers, for designers. This paper conducts an empirical investigation within a Rotterdam-based architecture office, with a broad portfolio in BIM usage and public building projects, to identify and categorize the factors affecting carbon data integration into the design workflows. It proposes a taxonomy of challenges within the architecture office, to better communicate the designer's needs to the data providers and software developers with architects as a target user. Amongst the bottlenecks encountered are: access to data (data inclusiveness), data literacy and connecting data usage with design decision-making.@en

Nowadays, our society is in the transit to adopt more sustainable energy sources to reduce our impact on the environment; one alternative is solar energy. However, this is highly affected by the surroundings, which might cause shadowing effects. In this paper, we present our method to perform shadowing calculations in urban areas using semantic 3D city models, which is split into five sections: Point Grid Generation, Sun-Ray Generation, Nightside Filtering, Bounding Volume Hierarchy and the intersection between the sun rays and the BVH to identify which locations are shadowed at a given moment (epoch). Our tests are performed in Rotterdam’s city center, a dense urban area in The Netherlands. Our initial results indicate that the computational time per 100 k grid points fluctuates within 0.2–0.7s.@en

This paper presents a new algorithm for filling holes in Level of Detail 2 (LoD2) building mesh models, addressing the challenges posed by geometric inaccuracies and topological errors. Unlike traditional methods that often alter the original geometric structure or impose stringent input requirements, our approach preserves the integrity of the original model while effectively managing a range of topological errors. The algorithm operates in three distinct phases: (1) pre-processing, which addresses topological errors and identifies pseudo-holes; (2) detecting and extracting complete border rings of holes; and (3) remeshing, aimed at reconstructing the complete geometric surface. Our method demonstrates superior performance compared to related work in filling holes in building mesh models, achieving both uniform local geometry around the holes and structural completeness. Comparative experiments with established methods demonstrate our algorithm’s effectiveness in delivering more complete and geometrically consistent hole-filling results, albeit with a slight trade-off in efficiency. The paper also identifies challenges in handling certain complex scenarios and outlines future directions for research, including the pursuit of a comprehensive repair goal for LoD2 models to achieve watertight 2-manifold models with correctly oriented normals. Our source code is available at https://github.com/tudelft3d/Automatic-Repair-of-LoD2-Building-Models.git@en

Although level of detail (LoD) is a central concept in 3D city modelling, specifying different LoDs in an unambiguous manner is not straightforward. To resolve this, a set of frameworks have been developed. This paper evaluates the suitability of the LoD framework of (Biljecki et al. 2016) for 3D building models that have been generated directly from BIM models. The output of two BIM shell extractors are tested on how well they can be defined by the framework. It was found that although BIM-derived models can be specified by the framework to a certain degree, the framework is not fully capable to also specify lower quality models and to support all the output that may come from BIM shell extractors. This can be resolved by either addressing issues in the shell extractors’ output or in the framework itself. The results of this research can be used to improve the LoD framework and to adjust the shell extractors output to better comply with unambiguous definitions of building models at different LoDs and could be a first step to standardise the conversion of BIM models at different LoDs to be used in urban applications.@en

Accurate lane maps with semantics are crucial for various applications, such as high-definition maps (HD Maps), intelligent transportation systems (ITS), and digital twins. Manual annotation of lanes is labor-intensive and costly, prompting researchers to explore automatic lane extraction methods. This paper presents an end-to-end large-scale lane mapping method that considers both lane geometry and semantics. This study represents lane markings as polylines with uniformly sampled points and associated semantics, allowing for adaptation to varying lane shapes. Additionally, we propose an end-to-end network to extract lane polylines from mobile laser scanning (MLS) data, enabling the inference of vectorized lane instances without complex post-processing. The network consists of three components: a feature encoder, a column proposal generator, and a lane information decoder. The feature encoder encodes textual and structural information of lane markings to enhance the method’s robustness to data imperfections, such as varying lane intensity, uneven point density, and occlusion-induced incomplete data. The column proposal generator generates regions of interest for the subsequent decoder. Leveraging the embedded multi-scale features from the feature encoder, the lane decoder effectively predicts lane polylines and their associated semantics without requiring step-by-step conditional inference. Comprehensive experiments conducted on three lane datasets have demonstrated the performance of the proposed method, even in the presence of incomplete data and complex lane topology. Furthermore, the datasets used in this work, including source ground points, generated bird’s eye view (BEV) images, and annotations, will be publicly available with the publication of the paper.@en

The integration of 3D city models and Building Information Models (BIM) in the context of GeoBIM has gained significant attention from both academia and industry. Harmonizing the distinct characteristics and goals of these models is crucial for successful integration. In this paper, we present the development of a plugin for Autodesk Revit, a popular BIM platform, which allows for the incorporation of 3D Geo-data encoded in CityJSON. The plugin, published as open source, enables the generation of individual geometries with associated city model attributes as parameters, facilitating analysing the impact of new or changed buildings (modelled in BIM) on the environment (captured in geo-data). Challenges addressed during development include georeferencing, data format import, handling different geometry approaches, hierarchy of attributes, code optimization, user-friendliness, and enhanced visualization. The plugin contributes to the seamless integration of geo- and BIM data, enhancing interoperability and supporting informed decision-making in the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction and urban domains.@en

The potential of Building Information Models (BIM) to establish rights and responsibilities for multi-level building complexes in cadastral registrations has been explored in many previous researches. However, the implementation of BIM-based cadastral registrations in practice remains limited due to the complex interplay between technical potentials and legal implications as well as uncertainty about the additional complexity of a BIM model and the extra work that will be required to generate the BIM Legal model. In collaboration with Netherlands Kadaster, we have investigated the data requirements for a BIM Legal model that will support the 3D cadastral registration of apartment complexes and that aligns with BIM creation processes in practice. The BIM Legal model aims to visualise the spatial aspects of apartment complexes and to align the cadastral registration to the 3D data that is generated in the design and construction phase of new buildings. The BIM Legal file will be submitted when an apartment complex is being registered and is based on IFC, the open standard established by BuildingSMART International and used in the BIM domain. To make the implementation of BIM Legal feasible legally, technically, and economically, we apply a 3-phase approach. This paper presents the BIM Legal model as defined in Phase 1, which enables to generate a BIM Legal model compliant with current legislation frameworks with no/minimal manual interaction from BIM models as commonly generated in design processes. The paper describes the 3-phase approach, the context of Phase 1, the data requirement analyses, the defined BIM Legal data model, as well the questions that emerged during the specification process that need to be answered to further improve the implementation of Phase 1 and to further develop BIM Legal for Phases 2 and 3.@en

Digital Twins are realistic digital representations of the physical world, frequently characterised by a two way link between digital and physical. Originating in manufacturing, they are now expanding to city and national scales. In this paper we explore connections between Geographic Information Science and National Digital Twins. Six different viewpoints and perspectives are presented on the topic, highlighting the importance of: geospatial data engineering; metadata engineering; standards; challenges facing mapping agencies; governance and public values; and a ”reality check” that explores the gaps between what is required and what can currently be achieved. We present 22 recommendations and summarise the findings by presenting a high level research agenda to enable better understanding and articulation of the link between the two.@en

With the rapid advancement of 3D sensing technologies, obtaining 3D shape information of objects has become increasingly convenient. Lidar technology, with its capability to accurately capture the 3D information of objects at long distances, has been widely applied in the collection of 3D data in urban scenes. However, the collected point cloud data often exhibit incompleteness due to factors such as occlusion, signal absorption, and specular reflection. This paper explores the application of point cloud completion technologies in processing these incomplete data and establishes a new real-world benchmark Building-PCC dataset, to evaluate the performance of existing deep learning methods in the task of urban building point cloud completion. Through a comprehensive evaluation of different methods, we analyze the key challenges faced in building point cloud completion, aiming to promote innovation in the field of 3D geoinformation applications. Our source code is available at https://github.com/ tudelft3d/Building-PCC-Building-Point-Cloud-Completion-Benchmarks.git@en

Urban building energy modelling aims at studying different approaches to estimate the energy consumed by buildings. However, most urban building energy models introduced in the literature ignore the impact that buildings have on their outdoor conditions, and inversely. Therefore, the paper determines whether interactions between buildings and outdoor conditions affects simulations performed using an urban building energy model, in particular during their calibration. Results suggest that interactions between buildings and their outdoor conditions affect the sensitivity of outcomes provided by an urban building energy model towards uncertain parameters and the probability to calibrate the model in accordance to some standards.@en

The role and adoption of 3D city models have been changing from a data endpoint to a centralised data source that is used for a variety of different analyses in different sectors. This change has not yet been fully completed and the transition process is still very noticeable at certain places. For example, data required for city-scale analyses are often missing, incorrect, or not stored in a standard way. A subset of these data (E.g. shell volume, shell area & footprint area) can be approximated from lower LoD shapes (LoD2.2 or lower) in the 3D city models. However, these models frequently simplify reality and therefore these approximations are not accurate. This paper proposes computing these data by voxelising Building Information Modelling (BIM) models representing the same buildings as the 3D city model. It is shown that a subset of these approximations (shell volume & footprint area) are more accurate than values computed from lower LoD shapes. Storing these data as attributes of the building models in 3D city models can improve the ease of use and the outcome of city-scale analyses. The computed values from BIM models can also be assigned to outputs of BIM to Geo conversions. This overturns the accuracy loss of the geometry caused by the conversion in which geometry is significantly generalised and simplified.@en

With the growing demand for sustainable accountability, the European Directive 2014/24/EU (EU 2014) pushes architects to deliver Building Information Models (BIM) as a part of procurement processes for public buildings. In the Netherlands, BIM model data is relevant to the building permitting process, which involves an environmental performance calculation (MPG). This assessment takes into consideration the embodied carbon of materials in a building. Although this analysis is performed by a qualified expert in late design phases, architects benefit from integrating carbon data in early design decision-making. Design methods supported by Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) values are needed before involving expert collaborators, and not only when applying for a building permit. The existing carbon assessment tools require detailed data from BIM models, which are often not available at early design phases. Simplified tools have been discussed in theory, and explored in their potential applications, however, there lacks scientific literature discussing the hurdles designers face in their attempt to create such tools in practice, for their internal use throughout early design phases. This paper focuses on the architecture professional practice and design methods supported by digital and computational technologies, regarding embodied carbon data. It investigates the challenges in integrating embodied carbon data in the design workflow, through the development of a digital tool made by designers, for designers. This paper conducts an empirical investigation within a Rotterdam-based architecture office, with a broad portfolio in BIM usage and public building projects, to identify and categorize the factors affecting carbon data integration into the design workflow. It proposes a taxonomy of challenges within the architecture office, to better communicate the designer’s needs to the data providers and software developers with architects as a target user. Amongst the bottlenecks encountered are: access to data inclusiveness), data literacy and connecting data usage with design decision-making.@en

The integration of geoinformation with Building Information Models (BIM), termed GeoBIM, has garnered significant attention across academic and non-academic sectors due to its potential for analyzing the reciprocal impacts of new designs on their environment. However, achieving integration between 3D city models and BIM necessitates ensuring consistency and alignment between their respective features and specifications. Georeferencing, a fundamental task in GeoBIM, involves establishing a connection between digital models and the Earth’s surface through coordinate transformations. Despite its importance, accurate georeferencing of BIM models has often been overlooked, resulting in challenges for integrating BIM models and geographical data. To address this gap, our study proposes a novel approach to enhance the georeferencing accuracy of BIM models by integrating surveyed points, considering the varying levels of georeferencing precision applicable to Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) models. We explore the potential benefits and challenges associated with this integrated surveyed point methodology, providing insights to improve georeferencing within the GeoBIM framework.@en

Delivering value from digital concepts such as Digital Twins is necessary to address systemic national and global issues, such as achieving Net Zero. However, there is still a lack of consensus over what a Digital Twin (DT) is and efforts to clarify this do not consider the Geospatial perspective. With the aspiration for national- and international-scale DTs, it is important that the Geospatial community understands its role in supporting the realisation of the value of these DTs. Here, a systematic literature review is used to gather DT case studies that use, or are inferred to use, elements of the Geospatial discipline. A total of 77 DT case studies about smart cities, manufacturing, energy, construction and agriculture are reviewed in full, and 24 Geospatial DT dimensions are defined and then compared with existing DT dimensions. The results indicate a considerable use of Geospatial Science in DTs that is not explicitly stated, meaning that there are possibly missed opportunities for collaboration between the Geospatial and DT communities. We conclude that the role of Geospatial Science in DTs is larger than stated and needs to be understood further.@en