Since most of the existing port infrastructure needs to be upgraded or replaced in the coming decades, the Port of Rotterdam Authority invests in sustainable and future proof design solutions. Together with their partners, they aim to reduce the port’s CO₂ emissions by 50% in 2030 and intend to achieve a zero carbon footprint by 2050. The effective use of new and existing materials is crucial to reach these goals. However, the actual capacity of port infrastructure is generally not precisely known, given that no failures have been observed in practice and the existing berthing facilities are performing very well. In order to derive insight into the reserve capacity of these structures, unique full-scale field tests have been conducted on flexible dolphins, foundation piles and anchor piles. This paper presents the technical, commercial and environmental results of recent pile load tests performed in the port of Rotterdam. The tests have led to a significant reduction of CO2 emissions associated with manufacturing and installing foundations, as well as reducing installation risks. Furthermore, a higher reliability level was obtained using less materials. This paper shows that in spite of the cost of performing full-scale field tests, the verification of the actual capacity of foundation piles is crucial to improve the carbon footprint of port infrastructure.
@en

PIANC WG211 was tasked with updating the design approach of marine fender systems. While the load-andresistance- factor design approach is widely adopted in the design of marine structures, the PIANC WG33 design guideline utilizes a global safety factor, referred to as the factor for ‘abnormal’ impact. However, it is unclear whether this global safety factor results in an appropriate reliability level. Several aspects of fender system design that significantly influence the fender reliability level do not appear to have been considered by PIANC WG33, such as, reliability targets, the effect of vessel berthing frequency and multiple fender contact. This paper explores the use of statistical data from recorded berthing velocities, fender manufacturer’s data, and other adjustment factors, to establish suggested partial factors of safety for the selection of fenders. The proposed partial energy factors are intended to provide the industry with greater uniformity in the assessment of the reliability level of fender systems and clearer guidance on the recommended design approach than is presently provided. Furthermore, this method can also be used in conjunction with national codes and standards. It is hoped that port authorities and terminal operators may also be able to use the findings of this study to derive greater insight into the reliability of their own fender systems and to optimize service
@en

In this study, driving records of 18 open-ended steel tubular piles installed in dense sandy soil conditions at five sites in the Netherlands were utilized to evaluate models that are currently used in practice for predicting the static soil resistance during driving (SRD), as well as a recently developed method, known as the Unified Method. Since the Unified Method is a static axial capacity-CPT-based design method, slight modifications to the originally proposed formulas were examined to allow estimation of the SRD. This paper presents a modified format of the Unified Method and its performance is assessed by comparing predicted with measured hammer blow count profiles. It is eventually shown that the modified Unified Method leads to overall improved blow count predictions compared to current approaches.@en

The PIANC Guidelines for the Design of Fender Systems: 2002 (WG33) is to be replaced by an updated document, PIANC Fender Guidelines 2024 (WG211). With the preparation and development of PIANC WG211, the issues that should be considered when selecting a fender system deserve as much attention as the design of any other element of the structure of which it is a part. This paper describes the fender selection process as outlined in Chapter 6 of PIANC WG211. The guideline provides background information on the range of factors influencing fender system selection, including estimating key aspects of vessel geometry, assessing multiple fender system contacts, and determining how the design vessel(s) is likely to interact with the proposed fender system. PIANC WG211 introduces the term ‘Base Fender Performance’, and this paper includes an overview of the detailed guidance now provided on the method to calculate and apply the relevant correction factors. It includes a new correction factor associated with accounting for the effect of multiple fender system contacts and the application of partial resistance factors now adopted for the selection of fenders, related to determining fender design performance. This paper also provides details on the updates to design guidance associated with factors affecting hull pressure, including the effect on the selection of fenders and the sizing of fender panels. This paper will provide designers, and others involved with the selection of fenders and fender systems, with a comprehensive overview of the revised and updated guidance, considerations and methodologies now included within WG211.@en

PIANC WG211 was tasked with updating the guidelines for design of marine fender systems. One of the changes to the new guideline is the change in approach to the design. Whilst the load and resistance factor design approach is widely adopted in the design of marine structures, the PIANC WG33 (2002) design guideline utilises a global safety factor, referred to as the factor for ‘abnormal’ impact. Based on statistical data from recorded berthing velocities, fender manufacturers’ data, and adjustment factors for uncertainties in berthing energy calculation, PIANC WG211 has established partial factors of safety for fender selection. To gain clarity on what the effects the updated design approach is, this paper compares the outcomes of the old PIANC WG33 and the new PIANC WG211 guideline. Data from actual project fender design specifications have been considered. Given similar input variables the new design method generally results in marginally smaller fender dimensions. WG211, however, recommends, on the basis of PIANC WG145 (2019), higher berthing velocities for large seagoing vessels compared to Brolsma’s berthing velocity curves in PIANC WG33, which can result in quite large fenders in the absence of site-specific information. During this study, however, the higher berthing velocities recommended by PIANC WG211 were confirmed based on new berthing records collected in a port in the northeast part of Europe. In general, when site-specific information is used to evaluate the navigation conditions and the associated berthing velocity, the design method of PIANC WG211 will result in reasonable fender dimensions. In addition, it was found that the fender dimensions can, in some cases, largely be optimised based on a parametric analysis of the fender pitch. Consequently, the conclusion is that the new design approach results in reasonable fender dimensions for majority of the ports and terminals around the world. Nevertheless, it is crucial to examine the influence of the local navigation conditions, such as wind, wave, currents and berthing manoeuvres, on the berthing velocity and that the asset owner, e.g. port or terminal authority, specifies the required safety level of the fender system specific to the berth.
@en

Over the past decades, vessel dimensions have grown considerably. Hence, marine structures need to absorb the larger berthing energy associated with these modern vessels. To absorb this berthing energy, quay walls and jetties are typically equipped with fender systems. In contrast with the increase of vessel size, the allowable hull pressure on vessels has decreased with every new generation of (container) vessels. Even though several case studies have been carried out into the capacities of vessels to accommodate berthing loads, a detailed assessment of berthing impact loads acting on the parallel hull of larger modern vessels that validates the current guidelines, is still lacking. This paper provides a comprehensive and structured assessment of vessel hulls impacted by fenders equipped with fender panels to gain insight into the key variables defining the critical berthing impact load. Furthermore, it offers insight into the structural response of the vessel’s parallel hull that is subject to fender induced berthing impact loads. The maximum fender induced load, as well as the allowable hull pressure found in this study, provide an important update to the current guidelines.
@en

With the preparation and development of the updated fender guidelines by PIANC WG211, it is evident that clear and uniform design recommendations for vessel berthing velocities need to be derived, since this is one of the most critical parameters in fender-system design. This paper outlines recommendations on how to ascertain characteristic berthing velocities for fender-system design, both in situations with and without the availability of site-specific information. The new PIANC WG211 fender design guideline advocates using sitespecific information, knowledge and experience where available (for example, utilising berthing records, past service performance, vessel approach speed limits, or the input of pilots and harbour masters) when defining the characteristic berthing velocities. Acknowledging that site-specific information is not always readily available, the PIANC WG211 report also provides recommendations for berthing velocities that can be considered in such circumstances. Furthermore, this paper explains the rationale behind the proposed berthing velocity table, which will serve as a valuable resource in fender-system design when site-specific information is lacking. The recommended characteristic berthing velocities in this study are carefully derived, taking into consideration the berthing velocities recommended in various design guidelines, including PIANC WG33, PIANC WG145, the German EAU2020, BS6349, the Spanish ROM, Japanese OCDI, Indian Standard IS4651, American UFC and MOTEMS. Additionally, this paper incorporates insights from recently published and unpublished berthing velocity records from the United States, Northeast Europe and Korea. The comprehensive examination of available information prompted a reassessment of some historically embedded hypotheses within the fender industry. The key findings resulting from this study significantly contribute to the design and assessment of fender systems. In essence, this paper underlines the crucial role of site-specific information and experience in determining characteristic berthing velocities. Practical recommendations are provided for scenarios where such information is unavailable, emphasising the importance of monitoring and adopting site-specific velocities as effective measures to optimise fender designs.. This approach aims to bridge the gap between theoretical considerations and practical applications in the maritime engineering domain, offering valuable insights for engineers and practitioners involved in fender-system design and assessment.@en

The Amaliahaven project in the Port of Rotterdam involves the construction of quay walls and a back crane track. Given the enormous quantities of foundation piles and anchors included in the design, it was decided to collect and store the installation data in a uniform and structured manner. The goal was to improve quality control and support site supervision through efficient data analysis and, in addition, to acquire new knowledge. This paper presents a framework for automated data collection and validation. Despite the high level of automation, manual verifications of the data through Site Acceptance Tests remain crucial. The data of driven foundation piles can be used quite easily by site supervisors and geotechnical engineers when assessing the load-bearing capacity of these piles. In fact, the initial knowledge from the coarsemeshed CPT grid is updated with additional insights obtained from the fine-meshed pile installation grid. For grouted anchors, there is significant improvement potential to create added value based on the recorded data. The findings of this paper can play a crucial role in the quality control procedure of foundation piles and can serve as direct input for reverse engineering of quay walls, and presumably also for other types of port infrastructure.@en

Propellers of ships generate high velocities adjacent to quay walls, jetties and locks. Generally, a bottom protection is installed in order to prevent instability due to scour. Although design guidance exist, propeller-induced loads are far from fully understood and have predominantly been derived on the basis of model tests. The validation of the existing design methods is lacking, especially for specific types of bow thrusters. In this research, field measurements of flow velocities induced by a 4-channel bow thruster system against a vertical quay wall have been performed. Test results showed a flow characterized by low mean velocities and large fluctuations, with the extent of reflected flow limited to few meters from the quay wall and inflow beneath the suction points playing a role.

@en

With the preparation and development of PIANC WG 211, it is evident that clear design recommendations for vessel berthing velocities need to be derived, since this is one of the most critical parameters in fender-system design. This paper discusses recommendations on how to determine the characteristic berthing velocities for the design of fenders systems, with and without the use of field observations. Furthermore, the proposed characteristic berthing velocities have been compared with the guidelines of PIANC WG 33, PIANC WG 145, the German EAU 2012, and the Spanish ROM. Based on the findings of these investigations, some historically embedded hypotheses will need to be reconsidered. The key findings of this study are considered useful for the design of fender systems for new berthing facilities and for the assessment of existing marine structures.

@en

Design of fender systems consists of two distinct steps: selection of an appropriate fender based on berthing energy demands from the berthing vessel and design of the supporting structure based on the reaction force imposed by the fender on the structure. Both steps include load or safety factors to increase the level of safety. The factor applied to the selection of fenders has up until now been referred to as an "abnormal berthing factor," with relatively vague recommendations for suggested values for use, usually between 1.25 and 2.0. British Standards (BS 6349-4:2014) has recently chosen to refer to this value as an "energy factor" instead of the previously used abnormal berthing factor. Codes and standards for design of most structures are often based on methods involving what is often referred to as load factors, partial load factors, or resistance factors. As an example, Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) in the US applies load factors to the different loads acting on a structure, and resistance factors to the capacities provided by the structural elements. Similarly, the Eurocode, OCDI, and British Standards use the partial factor method where the effect of the characteristic action, which can be a specified load or imposed deflection, multiplied by the load factor must not exceed the design resistance, i.e., characteristic resistance divided by the partial factors for materials. Although their applications are seemingly simple, these methodologies are based on substantial statistical work, including extensive collection of statistical data, a careful analysis of the data, and appropriate selections of safety levels and acceptable probabilities of failure. This paper explores how utilizing statistical data from berthing velocities, fender manufacturer data, and other adjustment factors were used to establish suggested partial energy factors for selection of fenders. This is what previously has been described as the abnormal berthing factor. By utilizing this method, energy factors can be recommended based on several factors, such as anticipated vessel traffic, type of terminal, type of fender system, or whether the analysis is done for new or existing structures. The suggested factors will provide much clearer guidance than what is currently given in the current fender design guidelines from PIANC WG33 and will be the basis for recommendations on energy factors in the upcoming document from WG211.

@en

While reliability methods have already been widely adopted in civil engineering, the efficiency and robustness of finite element-based reliability assessments of quay walls are still fairly low. In this paper, the reliability indices of structural and geotechnical failure modes of two real-life quay walls are determined by coupling probabilistic methods with finite element models, taking into account a large number of stochastic variables. The reliability indices found are within the range of the targets suggested in the design codes presently in use. Nevertheless, neglecting model uncertainty and correlations between stochastic variables leads to an underestimation of the probability of failure. In addition, low sensitivity factors are found for time-independent variables, such as material properties and model uncertainty. Furthermore, the results are used to reflect on the partial factors used in the original design. Important variables, such as the angle of internal friction, are subjected to a sensitivity analysis in order to illuminate their influence on the reliability index. Port authorities and terminal operators might be able to use the findings of this paper to derive more insight into the reliability of their structures and to optimise their service life and functionality, for example by deepening berths or increasing operational loads.

@en

The assessment of service-proven quay walls subject to corrosion-induced degradation is inherently a time-dependent reliability problem. Two major challenges are the modelling of corrosion and taking into account the decrease of epistemic uncertainty throughout the quay wall's service life. The main objective of this study is to examine the probability of failure, despite successful past performance, when the quay wall is subject to corrosion and randomly imposed variable loads. The development of the annual failure rate is modelled using crude Monte Carlo and by performing a first-order system reliability analysis. The annual failure rates found for service-proven quay walls vary over time. For those with successful service histories and subject to low corrosion rates, the highest reliability indices are observed in the first year of the service life, whereas with higher corrosion rates the final year prevails. In general, it seems more practical to evaluate reliability on an annual basis rather than over longer time periods, since the latter will introduce an iterative procedure to determine the wall's remaining lifetime. The key findings of this study can be crucial for the lifetime extension of existing quay walls, and presumably also for other service-proven geotechnical structures subject to corrosion.

@en

This paper present several cases in the Port of Rotterdam where both in the design and construction phase several different did not marched as expected. These cases are interesting for both the design as well the construction phase of a project. People will make mistakes however the mistakes describes in this paper have to be judged in time as not always everything was understood during the design and construction and the people of that time still these huge structures.

@en

Structural codes rely on generalised target reliability indices, which are mainly derived for buildings. It is unclear, however, whether these indices are applicable to the specific risk-profile of quay walls, jetties, and flexible dolphins. In this study, target reliability indices for marine structures were derived from various risk acceptance criteria, such as economic optimisation, individual risk, societal risk, the life quality index, and the social and environmental repercussion index. This article uses a method to determine reliability targets distinguishing time-dependent and time-independent variables, because some important stochastic design variables in the design of marine structures, such as soil and material properties, are largely time-independent. The assessment framework of ISO 2394, taking into account social, economic, and environmental impact, has proven to be a solid basis for reliability differentiation. The method of approach considered in this paper can also be used for evaluating target reliability indices of other geotechnical structures.

@en

General frameworks for reliability differentiation have evolved over time and are mainly developed for buildings. However, recommendations for the safety of existing quay walls are lacking. In this study, target reliability indices for assessing existing quay walls were derived by economic optimisation and by evaluating the requirements concerning human safety. In quay-wall design, some dominant stochastic design variables are largely time-independent, such as soil and material properties. The influence of time-independent variables on the evolution of the probability of failure was taken into consideration, since this affects the present value of future failure costs and the associated target reliability indices. The target reliability indices obtained for existing quay walls depend on the consequences of failure and the remaining lifetime. If the failure modes of a quay wall are governed by time-independent design parameters and the quay wall has already survived the early service period, the residual probability of failure is lower for an existing quay wall compared to a new structure. Hence, this should be considered in the determination of target reliability indices. The method to evaluate quay-wall reliability over time can also be used to assess other civil and geotechnical structures.@en

In the coming years, thousands of quay walls will approach the end of their intended fifty-year design lifetime and become part of lifetime extension programmes throughout the world. It is presently unclear how reliable these structures are and whether they are still capable of bearing ship and crane loads. An appropriate assessment of a quay wall’s reliability is essential to safely and responsibly determining its remaining service life. This thesis demonstrates how quay wall reliability can be evaluated and what aspects should be taken into consideration.@en

General frameworks for reliability differentiation have evolved over time and are mainly developed for new buildings. However, recommendations for existing quay walls are lacking. In this study target reliability indices for assessing existing quay walls were derived by economic optimisation and by evaluating the Life Quality Index criterion (LQI). In quay wall design, some dominant stochastic design variables are largely time-independent, such as soil and material properties. The influence of time-independent variables on the development of the probability of failure was taken into consideration in this study, because this affects the present value of future failure costs and the associated target reliability indices. The reliability indices obtained in accordance with the LQI acceptance criterion were a little lower than the target reliability indices derived by economic optimization. The target reliability indices obtained for existing quay walls depend on the consequences of failure and the remaining service life. If failure modes of a quay wall are largely time-invariant and already survived the first period of the service life, the residual probability of failure is lower for an existing quay wall compared to a new quay wall. Hence, this should be considered in the determination of target reliability indices. The method of approach to assess the development of reliability over time can also be used for evaluating target reliability indices of other civil and geotechnical structures.

@en

In 2017 the Dutch national standardization institute (NEN) released a new version of the National Annex to NEN-EN 1997-1 Eurocode 7, including revised reduced pile base factors. This has a significant impact on the dimensions of pile foundations. Consequently, in situ load tests were considered in the Port of Rotterdam. In this study, full-scale static load tests (SLT) were conducted on four prefabricated concrete piles (36 m long), in order to optimize the design of a new quay wall. The test piles were instrumented with several types of optical fibers along the length, enabling detailed registration of shaft friction and base resistance. Since the optical fibers were already installed at casting, unique insights have been acquired regarding the residual stresses in the piles after hardening. These stresses are commonly not taken into consideration, resulting in underestimation of base capacity in favor of shaft. Since the test piles were loaded after different time periods, the effect of aging was additionally investigated in this study. After the completion of the SLT’s, fully instrumented rapid load tests (RLT) were conducted on the same four piles. Subsequently, this provided the opportunity to compare and correlate the results of SLT and RLT for different soil types. This paper presents the results, conclusions and recommendations that follow from these tests. The results of this study have been used to optimize the design of the quay wall by reducing the number of piles by approximately 25% and hence, the overall construction costs by 5%.@en

Structures, such as quay walls, have to meet a particular level of safety. Consequently, in the Eurocode standards, three reliability classes are distinguished, each corresponding to a target reliability index and set of partial factors. In this study, more insight is acquired into the relationship between the quay wall's construction costs and the associated reliability index β. It appeared that the marginal costs of safety investments of quay walls are fairly low and in the same order of magnitude of the uncertainty of the estimate of the construction costs. Hence, it seems that the current reliability classes, as defined in the Eurocode standards, are non-efficient for quay walls. In addition, this study investigates the influence of the partial factors and three failure mechanisms on the construction costs and the reliability index. It was concluded that for the considered cases, the soil's angle of internal friction strongly influences the construction costs and the β of the quay wall. Furthermore, it follows that economic optimisation in the probabilistic design of quay walls is possible by increasing the target reliability index of the failure mechanism 'insufficient passive soil resistance' and decrease the target reliability index of 'yielding of sheet pile profile'.

@en