Cocrystallization of racemic-compound-forming chiral molecules can result in conglomerate cocrystals or diastereomerically related cocrystals, which enable the application of chiral separation techniques such as preferential crystallization and classic resolution. Here, a systematic method to identify the types and phase diagrams of cocrystals formed by chiral target compounds and candidate coformers in a particular solvent system is presented, which allows the design of suitable chiral resolution processes. The method is based on saturation temperature measurements of specific solution compositions containing both enantiomers of chiral molecules and a coformer. This method is applied to analyze three different systems. For racemic phenylalanine (Phe) in water/ethanol mixtures one of the enantiomers selectively cocrystallizes with the opposite enantiomer of valine (Val), forming the more stable diastereomerically related cocrystal. The racemic compound ibuprofen crystallizes with the nonchiral coformer 1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethane (BPN) as racemic compound cocrystals. More interestingly, when it is combined with trans-1-(2-pyridyl)-2-(4-pyridyl)ethylene (BPE), the racemic compound ibuprofen cocrystallizes as a conglomerate, which in principle enables the application of preferential crystallization of this racemic compound. The systematic method shows the benefit of using pseudo-binary phase diagrams. Such pseudo-binary phase diagrams depict the saturation temperature on a very specific route through the quaternary phase diagram, allowing the identification of various cocrystal types as well as the corresponding cocrystallization conditions. The systematic method can be used to identify a suitable solid phase for chiral separation, and the obtained phase diagram information enables the performance of a crystallization-mediated chiral resolution process design. Such a guideline for a chiral resolution process design has never been reported for conglomerate cocrystal systems such as IBU:BPE, presented in this study.

A high pressure semicontinuous batch electrolyzer is used to convert CO₂ to formic acid/formate on a tin-based cathode using bipolar membranes (BPMs) and cation exchange membranes (CEMs). The effects of CO₂ pressure up to 50 bar, electrolyte concentration, flow rate, cell potential, and the two types of membranes on the current density (CD) and Faraday efficiency (FE) for formic acid/formate are investigated. Increasing the CO₂ pressure yields a high FE up to 90% at a cell potential of 3.5 V and a CD of ∼30 mA/cm². The FE decreases significantly at higher cell potentials and current densities, and lower pressures. Up to 2 wt % formate was produced at a cell potential of 4 V, a CD of ∼100 mA/cm², and a FE of 65%. The advantages and disadvantages of using BPMs and CEMs in electrochemical cells for CO₂ conversion to formic acid/formate are discussed.

We use a high-pressure semicontinuous batch electrochemical reactor with a tin-based cathode to demonstrate that it is possible to efficiently convert CO₂ to formic acid (FA) in low-pH (i.e., pH < pK_a) electrolyte solutions. The effects of CO₂ pressure (up to 50 bar), bipolar membranes, and electrolyte (K₂SO₄) concentration on the current density (CD) and the Faraday efficiency (FE) of formic acid were investigated. The highest FE (?80%) of FA was achieved at a pressure of around 50 bar at a cell potential of 3.5 V and a CD of ?30 mA/cm². To suppress the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), the electrochemical reduction of CO₂ in aqueous media is typically performed at alkaline conditions. The consequence of this is that products like formic acid, which has a pK_a of 3.75, will almost completely dissociate into the formate form. The pH of the electrolyte solution has a strong influence not only on the electrochemical reduction process of CO₂ but also on the downstream separation of (dilute) acid products like formic acid. The selection of separation processes depends on the dissociation state of the acids. A review of separation technologies for formic acid/formate removal from aqueous dilute streams is provided. By applying common separation heuristics, we have selected liquid-liquid extraction and electrodialysis for formic acid and formate separation, respectively. An economic evaluation of both separation processes shows that the formic acid route is more attractive than the formate one. These results urge for a better design of (1) CO₂ electrocatalysts that can operate at low pH without affecting the selectivity of the desired products and (2) technologies for efficient separation of dilute products from (photo)electrochemical reactors.

We present a new plugin for LAMMPS for on-the-fly computation of transport properties (OCTP) in equilibrium molecular dynamics. OCTP computes the self- and Maxwell-Stefan diffusivities, bulk and shear viscosities, and thermal conductivities of pure fluids and mixtures in a single simulation. OCTP is the first implementation in LAMMPS that uses the Einstein relations combined with the order-n algorithm for the efficient sampling of dynamic variables. OCTP has low computational requirements and is easy to use because it follows the native input file format of LAMMPS. A tool for calculating the radial distribution function (RDF) of the fluid beyond the cutoff radius, while taking into account the system size effects, is also part of the new plugin. The RDFs computed from OCTP are needed to obtain the thermodynamic factor, which relates Maxwell-Stefan and Fick diffusivities. To demonstrate the efficiency of the new plugin, the transport properties of an equimolar mixture of water-methanol were computed at 298 K and 1 bar.