The interface electronics needed for quantum processors require cryogenic CMOS (cryo-CMOS) embedded digital memories covering a wide range of specifications. To identify the optimum architecture for each specific application, this article presents a benchmark from room temperature (RT) down to 4.2 K of custom SRAMs/DRAMs in the same 40-nm CMOS process. To deal with the significant variations in device parameters at cryogenic temperatures, such as the increased threshold voltage, lower subthreshold leakage, and increased variability, the feasibility of different memories at cryogenic temperature is assessed and specific guidelines for cryogenic memory design are drafted. Unlike at RT, the 2T low-threshold-voltage (LVT) DRAM at 4.2 K is up to 2 × more power efficient than both SRAMs for any access rate above 75 kHz since the lower leakage increases the retention time by 40 ,000 × , thus sharply cutting on the refresh power and showing the potential of cryo-CMOS DRAMs in cryogenic applications.

Addressing the advancement toward large-scale quantum computers, this article presents the first four-level pulse amplitude modulation (PAM4) wireline transmitter (TX) operating at cryogenic temperatures (CTs). With quantum computers scaling up toward thousands of quantum bits (qubits), but having too limited fidelity for robust operation, continuous rounds of quantum error correction (QEC) are necessary. However, QEC requires a large amount of data to be transferred from a cryogenic controller at 4 K to a classical processor at room temperature (RT). To bridge the gap, a high-speed data link between the quantum processor at CT and the classical counterpart at RT is needed. The proposed PAM4 TX architecture integrates a low-power 64:4 serializer structure, a high-speed 4:1 current-mode logic (CML) multiplexer, and a linear 6-bit digital-to-analog converter (DAC). Considering the challenges and benefits of CMOS operating at CTs, the TX architecture and circuitry are designed to exploit the maximum speed, while maintaining sufficient linearity. The fabricated 40-nm CMOS chip achieves a data rate of 40-Gb/s (36-Gb/s), an energy efficiency of 2.46 pJ/b (2.47 pJ/b), and 97.8% (96.6%) ratio of level mismatch (RLM) at CT (RT). While demonstrating an energy efficiency comparable to prior-art TXs in more advanced CMOS nodes at RT, the broad operating temperature of the proposed TX enables the required high-speed wireline link for large-scale quantum computers.

State-of-the-art quantum computers already comprise hundreds of cryogenic quantum bits (qubits), and prototypes with over 10k qubits are currently being developed. Such large-scale systems require local cryogenic electronics for qubit control and readout, leaving the digital controllers for algorithm execution and quantum error correction (QEC) at room temperature due to the limited cryogenic cooling budget. The entire process, including qubit readout, data transmission, QEC, and algorithm execution, should be completed well within the qubit decoherence time, thus requiring a low-power high-speed communication link between the cryogenic quantum processor and classical processor located at room temperature. To this end, this paper presents the first cryo-CMOS high-speed 4-level pulse amplitude modulation (PAM4) wireline transmitter. Thanks to a power-efficient serializing architecture driving a 6-bit digital-to-analog converter (DAC), the 40-nm CMOS chip achieves a data rate of 40 Gb/s PAM4 with an efficiency of 2.46pJ/b and a ratio of level mismatch (RLM) of 97.8% at 4.2 K. While demonstrating an energy efficiency comparable to state-of-the-art transmitters in more advanced CMOS nodes, the extremely wide temperature operating range (4.2 K - 300 K) will enable future large-scale quantum computers.

The cryogenic electronic interface for quantum pro-cessors requires cryo-CMOS embedded memories that cover a wide range of specifications. The temperature dependence of device parameters, such as the threshold voltage, the gate/subthreshold leakage, and the variability, severely alters the memories' performance between room temperature (RT) and cryogenic temperatures (4.2K). To assess the best memory design for a given application, this paper benchmarks three custom DRAMs and a custom SRAM in 40-nm CMOS at 4.2 K and RT, e.g., identifying that, while the SRAM is more power efficient for moderate-to-high speeds at RT, the 2T DRAM performs better than SRAM and 3T DRAMs at 4.2 K.

This article presents a two-times interleaved, loop-unrolled SAR analog-to-digital converter (ADC) operational from 300 down to 4.2 K. The 6-8-bit resolution and the sampling speed up to 1 GS/s are targeted at digitizing the multi-channel frequency-multiplexed input in a spin-qubit reflectometry readout for quantum computing. To optimize the circuit for the altered device behavior at cryogenic temperatures, a modified common-mode switching scheme is adopted as well as a flexible calibration. The design is implemented in 40-nm CMOS technology and achieves 36.2-dB signal to noise and distortion ratio (SNDR) for Nyquist input at 4.2 K while maintaining a Walden figure of merit (FOM textsubscript W) of 200 pJ/conv-step (for a 10.8-mW power consumption), including the clock receiver, and 15 pJ/conv-step (for a 0.8-mW power consumption) for just the core ADC. With these specifications, the ADC can support the simultaneous readout of 20 qubit channels with a power consumption of 0.5 mW/qubit, thus advancing toward the full integration of the cryogenic readout for future large-scale quantum processors.

Quantum computing is poised to solve practically useful problems which are computationally intractable for classical supercomputers. However, the current generation of quantum computers are limited by errors that may only partially be mitigated by developing higher-quality qubits. Quantum error correction (QEC) will thus be necessary to ensure fault tolerance. QEC protects the logical information by cyclically measuring syndrome information about the errors. An essential part of QEC is the decoder, which uses the syndrome to compute the likely effect of the errors on the logical degrees of freedom and provide a tentative correction. The decoder must be accurate, fast enough to keep pace with the QEC cycle (e.g. on a microsecond timescale for superconducting qubits) and with hard real-time system integration to support logical operations. As such, real-time decoding is essential to realize fault-tolerant quantum computing and to achieve quantum advantage. In this work, we highlight some of the key challenges facing the implementation of real-time decoders while providing a succinct summary of the progress to-date. Furthermore, we lay out our perspective for the future development and provide a possible roadmap for the field of real-time decoding in the next few years. As the quantum hardware is anticipated to scale up, this perspective article will provide a guidance for researchers, focusing on the most pressing issues in real-time decoding and facilitating the development of solutions across quantum, nano and computer science.

This paper presents a floating inverter amplifier (FIA) that performs high-linearity amplification and sampling while driving a 2<inline-formula> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\times$</tex-math> </inline-formula> time-interleaved (TI) SAR ADC, operating from room temperature (RT) down to 4.2 K. The power-efficient FIA samples the continuous-time input signal by windowed integration, thus avoiding the traditional sample-and-hold. Cascode switching, a floating supply and accurate pulse-width timing calibration enable high-speed operation and interleaving. In addition, by exploiting the behavior of CMOS devices at cryogenic temperatures, forward-body-biasing (FBB) is pushed well beyond what is possible at RT to ensure performance down to 4.2 K, and its impact on the performance of cryogenic circuits is analyzed. The resulting ADC, implemented in 40-nm bulk CMOS and including the FIA driver, achieves SNDR<inline-formula> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$=$</tex-math> </inline-formula>38.7 dB (38.2 dB), SFDR<inline-formula> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$&gt;$</tex-math> </inline-formula>50 dB (<inline-formula> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$&gt;$</tex-math> </inline-formula>50 dB), and FOMW<inline-formula> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$=$</tex-math> </inline-formula>25.4 fJ/conv-step (31.3 fJ/conv-step) with Nyquist-rate input at 1.0 GS/s (0.9 GS/s) at 4.2 K (RT), respectively.

Cryogenic CMOS (cryo-CMOS) circuits are often hindered by the cryogenic threshold-voltage increase. To mitigate such an increase, a forward body biasing (FBB) technique in bulk CMOS is proposed, which can operate up to the nominal supply without problematic leakage currents, thanks to the larger diode turn-on voltage at cryogenic temperatures. As a result, traditional circuits, such as pass-gates, can operate down to 4.2 K, and their performance is augmented, e.g., digital circuits speeding up by 1.62× or lowering their energy per transition and energy-delay product by 4.24× and 2.33× , respectively. Unlike back biasing in FD-SOI, here all FBB voltages remain within the supplies, hence enabling on-chip and device-specific biasing. The proposed FBB technique thus represents a valuable design tool for bulk cryo-CMOS circuits.

Quantum error correction (QEC) is required in quantum computers to mitigate the effect of errors on physical qubits. When adopting a QEC scheme based on surface codes, error decoding is the most computationally expensive task in the classical electronic back-end. Decoders employing neural networks (NN) are well-suited for this task but their hardware implementation has not been presented yet. This work presents a space exploration of fully connected feed-forward NN decoders for small distance surface codes. The goal is to optimize the NN for the high-decoding performance, while keeping a minimalistic hardware implementation. This is needed to meet the tight delay constraints of real-time surface code decoding. We demonstrate that hardware-based NN-decoders can achieve the high-decoding performance comparable to other state-of-the-art decoding algorithms whilst being well below the tight delay requirements (\approx 440\ ns) of current solid-state qubit technologies for both application-specific integrated circuit designs (< \!30\ ns) and field-programmable gate array implementations (<\! 90\ ns). These results indicate that NN-decoders are viable candidates for further exploration of an integrated hardware implementation in future large-scale quantum computers.

This paper reports the experimental characterization and modelling of a stand-Alone StrongARM comparator at both room temperature (RT) and cryogenic temperature (4.2 K). The observed 6-dB improvement in the comparator input noise at 4.2 K is attributed to the reduction of the thermal noise and to the suppressed shot noise in the MOS transistors becoming dominant at cryogenic temperature. The proposed model is employed in the design of a loop-unrolled 2\times time-interleaved 1-GSa/s 7b SAR ADC for spin-qubit readout. As predicted by the comparator model, the ADC is noise-limited at RT to a SNDR of 38.2 dB at Nyquist input, while this improves to 41.1 dB at 4.2 K, now limited by distortion, thus resulting in the state-of-The-Art FoMw for cryo-CMOS ADC of 20.9 fJ/conv-step.

Quantum computers (QCs) promise significant speedup for relevant computational problems that are intractable by classical computers. QCs process information stored in quantum bits (qubits) that must be typically cooled down to cryogenic temperatures. Since state-of-the-art QCs employ only a few qubits, those qubits can be driven and read out by room-temperature electronics connected to the cryogenic qubits by only a few wires. However, practical QCs will require more than thousands of qubits, making this approach impractical due to system complexity and reliability concerns. Although frequency multiplexing would reduce the interconnects to room temperature by fitting many qubit channels in the same physical interconnect, an excessive number of interconnects would still be required. An alternative, more scalable solution is a cryogenic electronic interface operating very close to the quantum processor to keep the whole control loop at cryogenic temperature, hence avoiding any high-speed interconnect to room temperature. This system must comprise drivers, readout circuits (LNAs, ADCs), and a digital controller to steer the quantum-algorithm execution [1]. While cryogenic CMOS (cryo-CMOS) wideband drivers and LNAs supporting qubit frequency multiplexing have been shown before [1] -[3], no wideband cryo-CMOS ADC has been demonstrated yet.

CMOS circuits operating at cryogenic temperature (cryo-CMOS) are required in several lowerature applications. A compelling example is the electronic interface for quantum processors, which must reside very close to the cryogenic quantum devices it serves, and hence operate at the same temperature, so as to enable practical large-scale quantum computers. Such cryo-CMOS circuits must achieve extremely high performance while dissipating minimum power to be compatible with existing cryogenic refrigerators. These requirements asks for cryo-CMOS electronics on par with or even exceeding their roomerature counterparts. This paper overviews the challenges and the opportunities in designing cryo-CMOS circuits, with a focus on analog and mixed-signal circuits, such as voltage references and data converters.