This doctoral thesis critically examines green space characteristics and their proximity to residents in their ability to help reduce the global disease burden of non-communicable diseases. By dissecting three pivotal pathways of theorized green space health effects through increased physical activity, increased social cohesion, and reduced air pollution, the thesis aims to provide new insights into which green space characteristics drive these relationships and in which distance they occur. To achieve these aims, this thesis develops reporting guidelines for the research field, a QGIS script for automatization of green space indicator development and uses two complementary sources for data collection. It builds on the self-reported data on physical activity, social cohesion, air pollution, health and mental health from the URBiNAT project and its case studies in the four European satellite neighbourhoods Nantes-Nord (France), Porto-Campanhã (Portugal), Sofia-Nadezhda (Bulgaria), and Høje-Taastrup (Denmark) and complements it with a rigorous spatial analysis. This enabled a rigorous sensitivity analysis based on up to 135 structural equation models per pathway. The results of this doctoral research revealed distinct green space characteristics and proximities that drive each pathway, including thresholds where these associations disappear or even change direction. It concludes that interconnected, multi-use green corridors are more beneficial than isolated patches for all analysed health pathways, challenging current municipal green space strategies to shift focus from mere ratios to green mobility infrastructures. Although rooted primarily in European contexts and of a cross-sectional nature, the doctoral research provides new evidence for urban planning and public health. It emphasizes the practical implications of how to design green spaces to address health concerns. The results not only resonate with the WHO's Urban Health Research Agenda but also provide tangible recommendations for a healthier human habitat.@en

In light of the changing climate and the need for urban densification in the
Netherlands, this study analyzes the potential global warming impact (GWI)
of implementing bio-based insulation materials (BBIMs) in high-rises in Amsterdam.
A literature and market review led to the identification of straw, grass,
hemp, flax, wood-fiber, and cellulose insulation as the most relevant BBIMs in
the Dutch context because of local availability and potential scalability. From
an expert interview on fire-safety constraints of BBIMs, it was concluded that
a 12 mm layer of gypsum fiberboard is needed to ensure fire safety in high-rise
buildings for insulation materials which do not meet fire-safety class A1/A2.
The GWI of the BBIMs was compared with stone wool, glass wool, expanded
polystyrene (EPS) and extruded polystyrene (XPS) through a dynamic Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA). The results consistently demonstrated optimal
GWI performance for the plant-based BBIMs, while XPS and cellulose typically
had the highest GWI. In a building case study, cumulative radiative forcing
values between 1.61e−8 W m−2 yr (cellulose) and −1.66e−8 W m−2 yr
(straw) were found in 2222. For the insulation of all 97.500 residential highrise
buildings which are to be built in Amsterdam until 2050, these values
were 2.50e−6 W m−2 yr (XPS) and −2.59e−6 W m−2 yr (straw). Annual
emissions savings of up to 587 tons of CO2-equivalents were projected when
switching from XPS to straw insulation. In working towards its 2050 climate
neutrality goals, the city of Amsterdam is advised to stimulate the implementation of BBIMs in all buildings, focusing on straw, grass and hemp in prefabricated façades.

Climate change is one of the most pressing matters our society faces. As a result, temperatures are rising across the globe. This effect is especially prevalent in urban areas, where artificial surfaces such as pavements are abundant and vegetation scarce. This effect is called the Urban Heat Island Effect (UHI). Another issue that is caused by climate change are increased rainfall extremes, which lead to a higher risk of flooding. This risk of flooding is higher in urban areas, as vegetation that can hold and absorb water is scarce. Vegetation can thus help mitigate both issues. Residential gardens could be an interesting source of vegetation within urban areas. The city of The Hague, in the Netherlands, is assumed as having one of the highest UHI intensities in the country. Moreover, it is the densest city in the country and thus poses an interesting location to study these gardens.
This study’s objective is to find out what it is that drives people to have vegetation within their gardens, and what effect this could have on both the UHI effect as well as runoff. The main research question entails: “How, and where, can vegetation in residential gardens in The Hague improve climate on a neighbourhood level?”. To answer this question, ArcGIS and SPSS are used. Initially, drivers behind vegetation within gardens are explored. Then, the current effect of vegetation within gardens is analysed. Finally, the potential of vegetation within gardens is calculated. This leads to several neighbourhoods that could be of great interest to policymakers who want to increase the amount of vegetation.
First, four factors emerged that influence vegetation within residential gardens. Green in the public environment, the average value of the residence, and the average size of the garden have a positive impact on vegetation within gardens. The more green in the public environment, or the higher economic value the residence has, the more vegetation there is within gardens according to this study’s findings. In contrast, the average household size instead sees a negative impact. The more people within a household, the more impervious surfaces within gardens.
Next, the effect of vegetation within the gardens on the UHI effect and runoff was calculated. This has shown that across all neighbourhoods, residential gardens reduce on average 2.7% of the local median UHI effect. The largest reduction is observed in Parkbuurt Oosteinde with 6.7%, and the smallest reduction in Westvliet-Oost, with 0.2%. As for runoff during a rainfall event of 100mm, the amount differs between 0.374mm in Vlietbuurt and 21.634 mm in Lage Veld, with an average of 7.3mm. Runoff stands for the amount of rain that cannot be absorbed by the soil.
Finally, the potential for residential gardens was calculated for a scenario in which all impervious surfaces were replaced with vegetation. As for the reduction of the UHI, increases up to 7.8% are noted. In addition, runoff can be reduced by up to 77% of the current amount. With these calculations, three neighbourhoods emerged as having high potential in both cases. These are van Hoytemastraat e.o., Parkbuurt Oosteinde, and Lage Veld. One thing that these neighbourhoods share is that they all consist of a large part of gardens of their total surface area. Policymakers could address these three to test their ideas, as the effects are likely to be easier to identify here than in other neighbourhoods.

The Netherlands, primarily a Delta nation, is confronted with significant challenges in adapting to the impacts of climate change and rising sea levels. And the urgency to prepare for a significant climate change is more than ever, now 9 years after the Paris agreement, the feasibility to keep to the agreement of 1,5 degree is shaky. The pressures of climate change, rising sea levels, increased demands on limited freshwater supplies, and more frequent extreme weather events are exposing the limitations of human control over the environment (Meyer, 2014).
Traditionally, the delta has been a dynamic landscape shaped by tides, wind, and currents. However, over the centuries, human intervention has increasingly dominated and transformed this landscape, leading to reduced dynamics, adaptability and biodiversity. The dynamic landscape is mechanically controlled with dikes, dams, sluices, and pumps. These highlights of water engineering make the Netherlands considered a pioneer in water management and flood protection. But to keep this postion we need to adapt and react on the changing future a head.

The human utilization of the delta aligns with the prevalent anthropocentric worldview, where nature is perceived as serving the direct or indirect needs of humans. This exploitative attitude towards the natural world has resulted in negative consequences, as we are currently witnessing. Nevertheless, there is a shift in this perspective, with two-thirds of the Dutch population considering themselves part of nature and feeling a responsibility to care for it. This view is a combination between the roles of stewardship and participant. (Schouten, 2013).

This master thesis has explored the research question of what the return to a (semi-) open delta would mean for the green-blue network of Schouwen-Duivenland, and what spatial framework and guiding design principles would be necessary to sustain and upgrade both the green-blue networks and livability, now and in the future.

By conducting a comprehensive analysis at the delta scale, this study identifies 6 key challenges: water safety, sediment deficiency (zandhonger), biodiversity loss, water quality, and saltwater intrusion. A more focused analysis at the island scale enables the exploration of solutions to these challenges and the establishment of design principles.
The proposed design principles, guided by a nature-based solutions approach, highlight the fundamental importance of soil and water. These principles address challenges posed by agriculture, urbanization, water management, and climate change, aiming to create a resilient and nature-inclusive environment. To facilitate their implementation in different contexts, the design principles have been transformed into practical pattern cards, offering clear and practical guidance.

In conclusion, this master thesis has provided valuable insights into the potential benefits and spatial implications of returning to a (semi-) open delta for Schouwen-Duivenland. The research highlights the importance of integrating green-blue infrastructure, ecological considerations, and livability aspects to create a resilient and thriving environment for both nature and people. This study offers valuable insights for policymakers, urbanists, landscape architects and researchers in the pursuit of a sustainable and nature-inclusive delta landscape.

Rapid urbanization and a growing world population has exerted unsustainable pressures on the environment, exacerbating climate change through unrestrained material usage and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Since the turn of the century, transitioning to a circular economy (CE) has been seen by policy makers as a potential solution for resource scarcity and climate mitigation. Cities, which possess a high density of human activities, material stock, and waste production, are major contributors to emissions. This is especially true due to the concentration of construction activities in cities – the industry is responsible for 38% of CO2 emissions and 40% energy consumption globally. On the other hand, cities can also facilitate the implementation of circular strategies, thanks to increasing availability of data on space, people, and materials in cities. While the importance of cities for the circular transition is recognized in literature, earlier studies and policy documents on “circular cities” focus on urban governance strategies. Scholars have therefore called for a deeper understanding of the spatial aspects of CE since the late 2010s, engendering the recent integration of spatial disciplines, such as urban planning, regional economics, and geography, into the study of CE. Moreover, the increasing availability of spatial data, especially on the location of material stocks and flows, provides an unprecedented opportunity to develop a data-driven understanding of where, and how far, materials should travel in a CE. This research therefore asks the question, “what determines the locations and scales of closing material loops in a circular economy?” The question was answered in 5 chapters (chs. 3-7), using both quantitative and qualitative spatial analysis methods, as well as present- and future-oriented perspectives. The research scope moves from general to specific, with earlier chapters (chs. 3-6) analysing 10 material types for the whole country of the Netherlands, and later chapters (chs. 6-7) focusing on construction materials in the city of Amsterdam and its surrounding region. Two novel data sources were used throughout the research. Waste statistics from the Dutch National Waste Registry provided current locations of waste reuse; and a prediction dataset from the Dutch Environmental Assessment Agency provided locations for future supply for construction waste and future demand for construction materials. In chapter 3, a theoretical foundation for understanding locations and scales for closing material loops was constructed by identifying the drivers, barriers, and limitations of circular urban manufacturing - processes that produce goods using local secondary resources. By conducting a literature review and interviewing experts, it was found that there were several caveats to closing material loops at a local scale. Factors that determine the locations of circular urban manufacturers were identified from three perspectives: space, people, and flow. In chapter 4, the factors affecting locations of waste reuse in the Netherlands were identified using spatial correlation. The previously identified space, people, and flow factors were translated into quantitative spatial factors that could affect the location of waste reuse. Correlations were found for flow and space-related factors, but not for people-related factors, which suggests that actors within the waste-to-resource supply chain tend to attract each other and cluster together to form agglomerations, and that locations of waste reuse are not related to attributes of the local population, such as local income, skills, or education. In chapter 5, the location and scale of waste reuse clusters in the Netherlands were then identified using spatial statistical methods. This answered the main research question from a spatial econometric perspective, identifying industrial clusters for closing material loops. It was found that all the studied materials except for glass and textiles formed statistically significant spatial clusters. To determine the scale of spatial clustering, the grid cell sizes for data aggregation were varied, to find the cell size that had the strongest spatial clustering. The best fit cell size is ~7 km for materials associated with construction and agricultural industries, and ~20–25 km for plastic and metals. In chapter 6, to answer the question from a spatial planning perspective, spatial parameters were identified for circular construction hubs - facilities that close material loops by collecting, storing, and redistributing demolition waste as secondary construction materials. Using the Netherlands as a case study, spatial parameters were extracted from two sources: Dutch governmental policy documents, and interviews with companies operating circular hubs. Four types of circular construction hubs were identified: urban mining hubs, industry hubs, local material banks, and craft centers. The spatial requirements for the four hub types were translated into a list of spatial parameters and analysis methods required to identify future locations - site selection, spatial clustering, and facility location. Finally, in chapter 7, spatial optimization was used to identify the optimal scale and location for circular timber hubs in Amsterdam and its surrounding region, answering the main research question from the perspectives of industrial ecology and logistics. The optimal scale was defined as a scale that is most cost effective, minimizing costs and maximizing emissions reductions through timber reuse. The optimal number of hubs for the study area was 29, with an average service radius of 3 km. The cost effectiveness was affected mostly by transportation and storage costs, while emissions savings had minimal effect. As an overall conclusion, five tensions were identified for determining locations and scales for closing material loops, because of the diverse and sometimes misaligned spatial perspectives. The first three tensions are conceptual, addressing contrasting perspectives for defining closing material loops - as urban manufacturing or urban mining; for their locations - as clusters or hubs; and for the factors that affect locations and scales - as spaces, people, or materials. The final two tensions are methodological, addressing contrasting approaches to time - looking at the present or the future; and to methods - quantitative or qualitative.

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Urban form plays a critical role when planning city transitions toward decarbonization. However, in urban climate conditions the complex relationship between urban form and cooling demand remains understudied. This thesis develops integrated approaches and knowledge in the transdisciplinary domain of urban morphology, urban climatology and energy-related fields while addressing the question: ‘How does urban form influence building cooling demand in urban microclimate conditions, and how can the magnitude of the relationship be assessed?’.
By answering this main research question, the thesis delivers a threefold contribution. First, it contributes to the conceptualization and understanding of both the intrinsic and the extrinsic role of urban form, by identifying urban form characteristics that directly influence building cooling demand, and indirectly contribute to shaping urban microclimate conditions in buildings’ surroundings. Second, the thesis contributes to increasing the assessment accuracy of urban form-related climate and energy performance. It does so by developing a quantitative morphological method to identify Local Climate Types (LCTs) and by developing a modelling method that enhances the use of microclimate data as boundary conditions for energy demand assessments. Thirdly, for the city of Rotterdam, the testing of these novel methods provides an understanding of how and to what extent the form of buildings and contexts influence building cooling demand.@en

Drastic oil palm plantation expansion has left Kalimantan low on lowland rainforest. Deforestation is accompanied by environmental consequences of establishing and operating a monoculture, as well as effects on biodiversity. Sacrificing spatial complexity comes at the costs of (microclimate) cooling potential, soil erosion, nutrient seepage, species richness and vulnerability to both flooding and fire (as climate change makes extreme conditions more likely).
Countermeasures against these threats focus on achieving more spatial complexity. The most important spatial interventions are intercropping, drainage ditch planting, boundary planting and restoring riparian buffers. Certifying produce as RSPO+ can steer implementation.

Rotterdam’s almost untapped roofscape offers an exceptional chance to solve large urban, and environmental problems cities are facing nowadays. Take for instance, climate change, energy transition, loss of biodiversity, and the shortage of public places. Therefore we should rethink flat roofs, and expose their potential. In many different ways, they could contribute to the development of a sustainable and resilient city in the future. Especially, multifunctional, green roofs are able to reduce heat stress, store (temporarily) water, purify the air, enrich biodiversity, and accommodate social functions, especially when there is a possibility to connect all those ‘hidden’, unused spaces in the city. There are already a lot of initiatives in Rotterdam, that come up with all different ideas to fill in the 18 square kilometers of flat roofs we have at our disposal. However, this is mostly about the (re)development of a single plot, a building block, or a street. If we really want to tackle those large urban challenges, we should not only see the potential of a single roof but zoom out and see how at a city scale the roofs could be transformed into a liveable roofscape.

This thesis explores the potential and redevelopment of flat roofs in the city center of Rotterdam and aims for a whole new flat rooftop network above the existing city. The main research question is: How can the (re)development of Rotterdam’s flat roofs be guided to achieve significant progress towards a sustainable and resilient Rotterdam? By analysing the existing urban fabric, investigating possible functions flat roofs could accommodate in relation to large urban scale problems, and seeing the technical implications and possible limitations, a proposal for a rooftop toolkit and strategy for the city of Rotterdam is formulated. The main research method is research by design. This all to support the growth of Rotterdam in the upcoming years and make the city even more sustainable, resilient and liveable in the future.

With the rapid growth of metropolitans, the world’s population has increased dramatically. The basis of human life is food, and people’s quality of life is highly dependent on adequate and safe food. The relationship and balance between cities and agriculture have been a long-standing discussion. At the same time, emergencies such as climate crises and pandemics have accelerated food production insecurity and biodiversity degradation.
Flevoland marked a milestone in man’s “mastery of nature”, the ability to reclaim, of which the Dutch are proud. Almere is considered the most successful New Town not only in Flevoland Province but also in the Netherlands. The urban expansion of Almere is at a high speed and every phase is under precise planning and control by human. The geometric polder is widely referred to as Mondriaan-style. However, with the agriculture restructuring, the original intensive agriculture land is now facing new challenges. In addition, nature is usually trivialized here, but in reality, it is the true backbone and dominance of the land. Even in the process of reclamation, nature decides where to fill the earth and coordinates the relationship between land and water.
So the objective of the project is to leverage a nature-based solution taking the concept of biophilia to build up a food landscape infrastructure that connects urban agglomerations and the agriculture hinterlands, synergizing the historical anthropological heritage with the pioneer zeitgeist of Flevoland.
The project takes nature-based thinking as a research principle, while biophilic thinking as a core design principle. Under the framework of Urban Ecology and Eco-cities, the project explores how to integrate ecological or historical identity into a monoculture of agricultural land.
To melt four aspects of landscape reflection with the project, which are perception, process, palimpsest, and scale-continuum, the design site can be delayered as 3 main elements: agriculture, nature, and urban, synthesizing the past, present, and future on a local and site-specific scale.

Renewable energy is beneficial to human life. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency, renewable energy provides not only environmental benefits but also societal advantages, namely lower carbon emissions/ reducing air pollution and employment. However, these systems require a substantial scale of infrastructures which take up large areas of land. In addition, developing such infrastructures can cause biodiversity loss and ecosystem change such as habitat loss/change, pollution, overexploitation, climate change and ntroduction of invasive species (Gasparatos et al., 2017). The negative effects of the energy infrastructures can be triggered by almost every renewable energy pathway. Hence, we need to consider the true ‘sustainable’ ways of the renewable energy landscape.

Rotterdam aims to be a carbon-neutral city by reducing 95% of CO2 emissions, and therefore the city introduces various renewable energy systems. In particular, Waalhaven has been a hotspot of many industries regarding renewable energy systems due to its geographical and industrial values. Waalhaven is in a transitional stage of actively altering energy production ways to make the system more sustainable. However, the port area has eight endangered species which are registered in the red list of The International Union for Conservation of Nature. In this regard, one may note that Waalhaven’s plant could produce threats to the current ecosystem.

Based on the above findings, this thesis suggests a spatial framework for a renewable energy landscape that can (1) strengthen the ecosystem, (2) bring robust biodiversity, and (3) provide sustainable energy production methods through utilising local resources. Other cities sharing similar environmental conditions and societal issues may also consider adopting this framework to resolve the problems. The final outcomes and goals present a vision for improving the environment and energy circularity in Waalhaven. The project describes a series of spatial interventions and detailed methods for integrating biodiversity and energy infrastructure and further introduces a scenario to build resilient planning for both human/non-human stakeholders.

This research took the Chongqing main town as an example to study the
impact of seasonal floods in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River on the
city, and strategies to improve flood resilience in the river corridor area in
mountainous cities. The study first analyzed the water safety, water conflict,
and water opportunities in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River and in
the urban area of Chongqing to understand the risk of floods with different
triggers (transit flood, local storm flood) and how to reduce the risks. Then,
analyze and select the severity of flood influence in the river corridor area in
the Chongqing main town, and find out the areas which most vulnerable to
flood. Thus to carry out the design to improve flood resilience in these areas.
Through the analysis and comparison of two more extreme flood control
scenarios, the study puts forward a road map for the implementation of river
corridor flood resilience and the principles of flood resilience urban design
for the cities in the upper stream of Yangtze River. In the design experiment,
the road map and the design principles are used to implement flood resilience
design for the two most severe hazard areas selected in the previous analysis.
The results show that this method can not only enhance the flood resilience
of those areas, but could also bring ecological, social and economic
benefits. From the design results, in the current urban environment, the
hybrid infrastructure approach is suitable for flood resilience design in all
kinds of situations. And the percentage of green and blue facilities in hybrid
infrastructure depends on the amount of space that can be used as flood
treatment zone. In the future regional flood control design, the methodology
used in this study can be used to evaluate the severity of flood hazards in the
river corridor area of other upstream Yangtze River cities. And it could also
serve as a reference for flood resilience river corridor design.

Currently the world is dealing with a pandemic. The world has stopped, and people are distancing from each other. However, this large crisis is not the only crisis the world is currently dealing with. Climate change is affecting the world drastically since the last century. Our current way of development must stop to deal with this change. This is the ideal time to stop and think about the future. How can we provide a future-proof city that is still attractive to our grandchildren?
Regardless of the crisis, more people want to live in cities, and therefore more features are needed within the same space. Cities must continuously adapt to new needs and demands. This fast-changing environment makes it even harder to continue our current development, while adapting to the needs and demands. A future-proof city starts with a sustainable development of new plans. It is time to improve the involvement of sustainability in area development. This study will look at this overdue change in area development. It acknowledges this problem and aims to advice how sustainability can be better embedded in spatial planning.
To support this optimization, the instruments of a municipality are researched in this master thesis. Next to the instruments, also, governance and the organizational aspects are included. This research has found that these three aspects of instruments, governance and organization combined should be optimized. An optimization of these three aspects can ensure that an area is developed sustainable.

Large material flows are extracted from natural mines in the earth’s crust and moved and stored in anthropogenic environments. Extraction processes from natural mines are often harmful for the environment and can cause material scarcity. At the same time governments are formulating ambitions to increase circularity in cities. For these reasons the concept urban mining is becoming increasingly interesting: the process of analysing and recovering or reusing materials from the city. There is still a lot to explore before steps can be taken to implement urban mining. For a lot of materials, data is missing on quantities and precise locations. This research proposes a method to localize material quantities, for estimating the potential of the material mine of a city. This is done with a case study for copper stock dynamics in Amsterdam between 2018 and 2050. Material Flow Analyses up until now seem to have been effective for analysing material stocks and flows in cities. Geographic Information Systems are used for all kinds of geographic research. With a combination of the two, stock dynamics of copper between 2018 and 2050 are modelled on a detailed level. The copper stocks are distinguished on basis of use in the city: buildings, infrastructure, transportation and appliances. Firstly, the current stock density is estimated, resulting in an amount of 150 kilograms of copper per capita, and visualised in a density map. The map demonstrates a high copper density in the centre, and a low density the further away from the centre. Then, the future stock dynamics are modelled. The resulting stock comes down to about 167 kilograms per capita. An energy transition scenario is modelled on top of the model, to gain insights of the impact of the energy transition on the copper stock. This led to an increase of 7%. The stock expands, mainly to areas in around the centre. Several socio-economic variables seem to correlate with the distribution of the copper mine: floor area density and projected population growth. The outcome of the model can be useful for improving logistics of secondary material outflows. The outcome can also support decision making for policy measures that influence the demand of materials that are potentially scarce (such as subsidizing of solar panels). The method was labour and data intensive, python knowledge would be recommended in the future. Another important recommendation is to start a collaboration for a sound database that can be used for prospecting urban mines.

Abstract

This thesis describes the energy flows and environmental improvement possibilities of the Amsterdam metropolitan area (AMA), using district heating as thermal energy supply system. Main challenges to over come are finding appropriate thermal supply systems that can serve the required heat wile increasing the overall sustainability. The research presents the environmental improvements and reviews design parameters of different technologies proposed. Results showed that different heat supply configurations can lead to sustainable improvements, mainly reducing the environmental impact concerning abiotic depletion and global warming potential. An analysis to inventory suitable locations that can be attached to the district heat network (DHN) has been carried out. Locations suited to connect to the DHN differ per methodology applied, but are mainly to be found in or near the larger cities of the AMA.