With the Paris climate accords signed in 2016, most countries have committed themselves to ambitious climate targets during the next decades. One of these targets is a dramatic increase in the overall energy portfolio's market share of renewable energies. This increase in renewable market share will, for a large part, consist of newly built offshore wind farms. In turn, this rise in offshore wind energy projects is expected to be especially dramatic in northern regions, where high and constant wind speeds prevail. However, as offshore wind farm projects move further north, additional challenges need to be faced. One of these is the technical challenge to design offshore wind farms for possible encounters with drifting sea ice. To tackle this challenge, a proper understanding of the mechanics associated with encounters of drifting sea ice with offshore wind turbines is essential.
Such encounters are currently primarily understood phenomenologically, and the associated models simulating these encounters – or ice-structure interactions – therefore are phenomenological as well. Moreover, most ice-structure interaction models are fundamentally one-dimensional, whereas ice-structure interactions are generally not one-dimensional. This mismatch holds especially for ice-structure interactions with offshore wind turbines, where wind loads are generally misaligned with ice loads causing highly two-dimensional ice-structure interaction problems. Therefore, the first half of this work sets out to extend one of the industry-leading phenomenological one-dimensional models – the Hendrikse (2017) model – to a two-dimensional environment. The ultimately developed Zero-friction contact Area variation Model By Omnidirectional Numerical Ice (ZAMBONI) attempts to do so by introducing practical extensions rather than introducing new assumptions. Nevertheless, one extension does entail a shift from current one-dimensional ice-structure interaction models. Namely, the assumption that ice experiences neither friction at the ice-structure interface nor internal shear forces. Consequently, much of the correctness of this model hinges on this extension. To assert the correctness of ZAMBONI. A comprehensive verification campaign is performed as well as a simple order-of-magnitude validation campaign. Although both confirm the extensions' correctness, further validation is required, especially concerning the zero-friction principle. Upon developing and discussing this two-dimensional ice-structure interaction model, the second half of this work couples ZAMBONI to an offshore wind turbine model to gain further insight into ice-structure interactions. These dynamically coupled two-dimensional simulations serve two purposes. Firstly, to compare one- and two-dimensionally simulated load cases of aligned ice and wind. Secondly, to perform newly simulable load cases of misaligned ice and wind. Four primary findings are discussed. Firstly, as hypothesized, introducing a disturbing wind load lowers the ice-structure contact area, causing smaller loads and displacements due to ice loads. This effect is especially well observable for misaligned wind loads and low far-field ice velocities. Secondly, a new ice-structure interaction regime is observed where ice and structure synchronize in the structure's first bending mode. This synchronization occurs most dominantly for two-dimensional ice. Thirdly, frequency lock-in occurs solely in the second bending mode and is terminated at lower ice indentation speeds for two-dimensional than for one-dimensional ice. Finally, small ice-wind misalignments, which are most common, appear highly similar to load cases of fully aligned ice and wind.