The formation of White (WEL) and Brown Etching Layers (BEL) on rail raceways during service causes the initiation of microcracks which finally leads to failure. Detailed characterization of the WEL and the BEL in a pearlitic rail steel is carried out from micrometer to atomic scale to understand their microstructural evolution. A microstructural gradient is observed along the rail depth including martensite, austenite and partially dissolved parent cementite in the WEL and tempered martensite, ultrafine/nanocrystalline martensite/austenite, carbon saturated ferrite and partially dissolved parent cementite in the BEL. Plastic deformation in combination with a temperature rise during wheel-rail contact was found to be responsible for the initial formation and further microstructural evolution of these layers. The presence of austenite in the WEL/BEL proves experimentally that temperatures rise into the austenite range during wheel-rail contact. This is in agreement with finite element modelling results. Each wheel-rail contact must be considered as an individual short but intense deformation and heat treatment cycle that cumulatively forms the final microstructure, as shown by diffusion length calculations of C and Mn. The presence of secondary carbides in the BEL indicates that the temperature in the BEL during individual loading cycles reaches levels where martensite tempering occurs. Partially fragmented primary cementite laths, enriched in Mn, depleted in Si, and surrounded by a C-gradient and dislocations were found in the BEL. The initial step in the formation of BEL and WEL is the defect- and diffusion-assisted decomposition of the original microstructure.

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Solidification cracking susceptibility during laser welding was studied experimentally and numerically in advanced high strength steel sheets, namely transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) and dual phase (DP) steel. Using the same heat input, laser bead-on-plate welding was carried out on single sided clamped specimens at various starting distances from the free edge. It was observed that TRIP steel with high phosphorus is susceptible to cracking while in DP steel with low phosphorus, solidification cracking was not observed. The metallurgical factors affecting the solidification cracking were studied and it was found that solidification morphology, phosphorus segregation at the prior austenite grain boundaries, inclusions, interface growth rate and interdendritic liquid feeding have a prominent effect on the strength of the mushy zone. These results are discussed pertaining to the cracking mechanism. For the same welding parameters, a difference in the weld pool shape was observed in both the steels, which is attributed to the high temperature thermophysical properties. Weld pool shape affects the strain distribution in the mushy region and thus the cracking behaviour. The cracking phenomenon is further described using hot ductility curves.

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Preventing solidification cracking is an essential prerequisite for the safety of a welded structure. An undetected solidification crack has the potential to cause premature failure during service. Two conditions generated by a weld thermal cycle are responsible for the initiation of solidification cracks. The first is the presence of excessive stresses/strains imposed on the solidifying weld metal and the second is the existence of a weak solidifying microstructure. For more than five decades, weld solidification cracking has been a subject of considerable interest. Cracking has been observed in various alloys, used in a wide range of engineering applications. Despite achieving a better understanding over this period, an accurate prediction of the occurrence of solidification cracking under a specific set of conditions remains difficult. An alloy with a high susceptibility to solidification cracking can still exhibit good weldability upon selection of appropriate welding conditions. Conversely, an alloy with supposedly high resistance to cracking, can still fail when subjected to inappropriate welding conditions. The objective of the research work reported in this dissertation is to study and elucidate the solidification cracking phenomenon in two popular and commercially available automotive sheet steels, namely transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) and dual phase (DP) steels. In particular, the effect of restraint (strain imposed), shape of the weld pool, solidification morphology, segregation, solidification temperature range, dendrite coherency and interdendritic liquid feeding on susceptibility to solidification cracking is considered.@en

Hot cracking during laser welding of Transformation Induce Plasticity (TRIP) steel at the edges of steel flanges can be a problem. In this study, modified hot cracking tests were performed by welding on a single-side clamped specimen at various distances from the free edge, while the heat input and external constraints remained constant. In situ temperature and strain measurements were carried out using pre-attached thermocouples and digital image correlation, respectively. A thermal-mechanical finite element (FE) model was constructed and validated with the temporal and spatial data measured. From the validated FE model, the temperature and strain evolution in the weld mushy zone were studied. A critical strain for the onset of hot cracking in the TRIP steel examined was found to be in the range of 3.2 to 3.6%. This threshold was further evaluated and experimentally confirmed by welding with different heat inputs.@en

In situ high-temperature laser scanning confocal microscopy is applied to study solidification cracking in a TRIP steel. Solidification cracking was observed in the interdendritic region during the last stage of solidification. Atom probe tomography revealed notable enrichment of phosphorus in the last remaining liquid. Phase field simulations also confirm phosphorus enrichment leading to severe undercooling of more than 160 K in the interdendritic region. In the presence of tensile stress, an opening at the interdendritic region is difficult to fill with the remaining liquid due to low permeability and high viscosity, resulting in solidification cracking.

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Susceptibility to weld solidification cracking in transformation-induced plasticity steel sheets was studied using a modified standard hot cracking test used in the automotive industry. To vary the amount of self-restraint, bead-on-plate laser welding was carried out on a single-sided clamped specimen at increasing distances from the free edge. Solidification cracking was observed when welding was carried out close to the free edge. With increasing amount of restraint, the crack length showed a decreasing trend, and at a certain distance, no cracking was observed. With the aid of a finite element-based model, dynamic thermal and mechanical conditions that prevail along the transverse direction of the mushy zone are used to explain the cracking susceptibility obtained experimentally. The results indicate that the transverse strain close to the fusion boundary can be used as a criterion to predict the cracking behavior. The outcome of the study shows that optimum processing parameters can be used to weld steels closer to the free edge without solidification cracking.

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Advanced high-strength steels (AHSS), which are increasingly used in the automotive industry, meet many functional requirements such as high strength and crash resistance. Some of these steels contain high amounts of alloying elements, which are required to achieve the necessary mechanical properties, but render these steels susceptible to weld solidification cracking. Weld solidification cracking results from the complex interplay between mechanical and metallurgical factors. Our recent work is focused on studying solidification cracking in dual phase (DP) and transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) steels using the following modeling and experimental strategies: 1. A finite element (FE) based model was constructed to simulate the dynamic thermal and mechanical conditions that prevail during bead-on-plate laser welding. To vary the restraint, laser welding was carried out on single sided clamped specimens at increasing distances from the free edge. In TRIP steel sheets, solidification cracking was observed when welding was carried out close to the free edge and at a certain minimum distance, no cracking was observed. For the no cracking condition, in situ strain evolution during laser welding was measured by means of digital image correlation to validate the strain from the Fe-model. Subsequently, a phase field model was constructed using the validated thermal cycles from the FE-model to simulate the microstructural evolution at the tail of a weld pool, where primary dendrites coalesce at the weld centerline. From the phase field model, elemental segregation and stress concentration are used to explain the cracking susceptibility in TRIP and DP steels. For DP steel, both the experimental and modeling results indicate a higher resistance to solidification cracking. 2. A phase field model was constructed to simulate the directional solidification in TRIP and DP steels. The thermal cycle and temperature gradient were derived from the in-situ solidification experiments conducted using high temperature laser scanning confocal microscopy (HTLSCM). The model showed that longer and narrower interdendritic liquid channels exist in the case of TRIP steel. For the TRIP steel, both the phase field model and atom probe tomography revealed notable enrichment of phosphorus, which leads to a severe undercooling in the interdendritic region. In the presence of tensile stress, an opening at the interdendritic region is difficult to fill with the remaining liquid due to low permeability, resulting in solidification cracking. The overall study shows that a combination of factors is responsible for the susceptibility of a material to solidification cracking. These include particularly mechanical restraint, solidification temperature range, solidification morphology, solute segregation and liquid feeding capability.@en

Sufficient liquid feeding under constrained solidification conditions like, those experienced in welding and casting, is vital to avoid solidification cracking. We present the results of unique in-situ experimental observations of liquid feeding in a solidifying steel melt pool. Liquid feeding was observed in the inter-cellular regions during the terminal stage of solidification. An average liquid flow speed of 450–500 μm s⁻¹ was found. A pressure difference of the order of 10⁴ Pa is calculated to cause the liquid flow. The rate of solidification shrinkage and the rate of deformation were found to be less than the rate of liquid feeding.

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In situ strain evolution during laser welding has been measured by means of digital image correlation to assess the susceptibility of an advanced high strength automotive steel to solidification cracking. A novel method realised using auxiliary illumination and optical narrow bandpass filter allowed strain measurements as close as 1.5 mm from the fusion boundary with good spatial and temporal resolution. A finite-element thermomechanical model of the welding process supports the experimentally measured transverse strain. The validated finite-element numerical model can be used to assess the local strain and associated stress conditions which influences weldability and in particular, solidification cracking.@en

Hot cracking during laser welding of advanced high-strength steels is reported to be a serious problem by automotive manufacturers. In this work, hot cracking susceptibilities of transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) and dual-phase (DP) steels are studied based on a multi-scale modelling approach. Transient temperatures measured from welding experiments are used to validate a finite element (FE) model. The temperature, thermal gradient and cooling rate in the weld fusion zone are extracted from the FE model and pre-defined as boundary conditions to a phase field model. The welding-induced microstructural evolution is simulated considering thermodynamic and mobility data. Results show that, compared to the DP steel, the TRIP steel has a broader solidification range, a greater pressure drop at the inter-dendritic regions, and an increased phosphorus segregation at the grain boundaries; all these make this steel more susceptible for hot cracking.

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