Diversity is a fundamental aspect of a rich urban environment while built spaces have substantial impact on human health and comfort. Therefore, meeting the diverse needs of all urban inhabitants is crucial for the endeavour to create a suitable urban environment. Increasing inclusivity in urban spaces requires the incorporation of a multitude of voices into the theoretical discourse about architecture and urban planning, as this discourse shapes design strategies and ultimately influences the built environment. In particular, the perspectives of marginalized groups are vital, as they are often affected most by the consequences of dysfunctional urban planning strategies.
The growing interest in the perspectives of women architects, particularly following the second wave of the Women’s Rights Movement in the 1960s and ‘70s, led to an increasing number of publications exploring the experiences of women and other marginalized groups in the built environment. However, this growing influence was primarily restricted to predominantly white middle-class women, reflecting the prevailing biases within the feminist movement at the time. Consequently, members of other marginalized groups continued to face significant barriers in academia.
This thesis seeks to broaden this discourse by examining the available contributions from (predominantly white) women architects in the 20th century and critically assessing which insights they can offer into the experiences of marginalized groups within urban contexts.
The hypothesis guiding this research posited that 20th century women architects, influenced by their own experiences of oppression within urban spaces, possessed a heightened awareness for the experiences of marginalized groups compared to their male counterparts. However, it is important to acknowledge the limitations of the perspectives of predominantly white women architects who are affected by their own bias, as experiences in the urban context are influenced by intersectional factors. Therefore, this thesis aims to emphasize the importance of incorporating diverse voices into the discourse to develop a more inclusive built environment. Nevertheless, as illustrated in the first chapter, the voices of women architects and theorists can offer important critical views on the built environment due to their unique position in the architectural field in the 20th century.

Luzia Hartsuyker-Curjel emerges as a significant figure in Dutch architectural history, reshaping urban living discourse in the post-war era. This study explores her focus on gender-inclusive design, intersecting with transformative societal shifts and architectural innovations. Through case studies and socio-cultural analysis, it investigates the prevailing context during Hartsuyker-Curjel’s emphasis on gender-inclusive designs in the 1980s. Grounded in historical frameworks and supported by literature, the research reveals the dynamic interplay between societal perceptions of gender roles and architectural works. Hartsuyker-Curjel’s projects, the Geindriedorp and Borssenburgplein developments, exemplify her commitment to inclusivity and innovation. The ‘Burgerziekenhuis voor Vrouwen’ project stands as a testament to community-driven initiatives promoting gender equality. This thesis raises questions about the appearance of underrepresentation of the BVV project in professional discourse, urging further investigation into systemic biases within the architectural profession. Overall, Hartsuyker-Curjel’s work invites reflection on architecture’s broader role in shaping societal values and fostering diversity, serving as a catalyst for creating more humane and sustainable built environments.

Zaha Hadid’s architectural journey emerges from her early exposure to diverse cultures and her natural curiosity sparked at a young age. Born into a family of influence in Baghdad, Iraq, Hadid’s upbringing, characterized by travels and exposure to significant buildings, laid the foundation for her prestigious career. Despite facing gender biases in the architectural profession, Hadid’s determination motivated her to pursue her passion at the Architectural Association in London, where she improved her visionary skills under the mentorship of renowned architects.
Transitioning from a “paper architect” to a builder of architectural wonders, Hadid’s growth period witnessed the realization of her avant-garde designs, overcoming skepticism and challenges. Her distinctive style, marked by fluid forms and unconventional angles, earned international acclaim, resulting in her historic recognition as the first woman to receive the prestigious Pritzker Architecture Prize in 2004.
Embracing Parametricism as a new architectural paradigm, Hadid’s late period demonstrated her adaptability and innovation. From the MAXXI museum in Rome to the London Aquatics Centre, her projects pushed the boundaries of architectural geometry, leaving a lasting mark on the built environment. Despite facing criticism and challenges, Hadid’s consistent commitment to progress and creativity elevated her to the prominent position within the architectural community.
Tragically, her early passing in 2016 marked the end of an era, yet her legacy endures through the Zaha Hadid Architects firm, which continues to realize her transformative vision. Currently, her impact is felt worldwide, motivating upcoming generations of architects to question norms and explore new possibilities.

This thesis focuses on villa E-1027 by Eileen Gray. To be more precise, this thesis will research the design philosophy of Eileen Gray, Villa E-1027 and the development of the modern European Movement. Therefore the main research question that will be answered is how has Eileen Gray's design philosophy shaped Villa E-1027, and what is the contribution of the villa to the development of the modern European movement? This thesis, following the introduction, is divided into 3 chapters based on literature review

Gray viewed Villa E-1027 as a prototype, a model for other architects to build upon and refine her ideas (Goff, 2015). In doing so, she designed a villa that made significant contributions to the development of the modern movement. For example, Gray achieved a remarkable cohesion between furniture, interior, and exterior, a concept later echoed in Villa Tugendhat. Moreover, as previously noted, Gray blurred the barrier between interior and exterior spaces, expanding the unity of the building to include the garden and terraces (Pitiot & Stritzler-Levine, 2020). This architectural innovation can also be observed in later works such as Villa Savoye, Villa Tugendhat, and the Homewood House. Consequently, it is evident that Gray not only furthered the ideas and designs of her contemporaries but also influenced subsequent architectural developments with her innovations implemented in Villa E-1027. In conclusion, Villa E-1027 played a role in the development of the modern European movement by exemplifying how to achieve coherence between furniture, interior, and exterior spaces.

Unfortunately, pinpointing the exact origin of certain architectural solutions or design principles is challenging. It is also difficult to establish who influenced whom and how those influences manifested in the buildings. However, it is evident that modern architects learned from one another, although they often held different perspectives, leading them to approach certain aspects in diverse ways.

This research gives an answer to the question question ‘How is the switch in architectural language of Yasmeen Lari connected to the social and political context in Pakistan throughout her career?’. It explores three key themes: feminism, nationalism, and economic inequality. Lari's architectural humanitarian works, aimed at empowering women in rural communities and addressing economic disparities, align more with secular liberal feminism than modern Islamic feminism. Her initiatives promotes financial independence for women, diverging from the focus of modern Islamic feminism on the male caring for the women rather than equal gender rights. Lari's response to economic inequality involves providing marginalized communities with safe housing and income sources, aiming to foster financial independence and potentially mitigate future conflicts. Additionally, she contributes to Pakistani nationalism by incorporating traditional vernacular methodologies into her designs, thereby preserving national culture and uniting a divided nation. While nationalism didn't directly drive Lari's architectural shift, economic inequality played a significant role, alongside the potential influence of feminist ideals. Ultimately, Lari's transition to sustainable architecture is also motivated by the increasing natural disasters caused by global warming, an aspect which is not directly connected to the social and political conext of Pakistan.

This thesis investigates how the real Western built environment influenced cinematic architecture in the science-fiction films Metropolis (1927) and Blade Runner (1982), revealing the real architectural elements that were either copied or adapted into imaginary worlds throughout the 20th century. In doing so, both films are analysed on three different scales: cityscape, building and detail, and are connected to changes, events and movements of the 20th century. Metropolis shows an exaggeration of New York City, and displays in this cityscape complex issues like urbanization and industrialization. Moreover, the influence of modernism is visible through the use of Le Corbusier’s Radiant City as a backbone, and concrete and steel as building materials. In Blade Runner, the cityscape portrays a city of post-industrial decay, chaos, and overpopulation, and can be seen as the opposite of the Radiant City. Furthermore, Asian neon signs, shops and culture shows a shift to a more Eastern dominance. The details of certain spaces, however, show a connection to postmodernism and its characteristic of using ancient styles as a reference for architecture. As notable, both films display cities of the future, however, the films are rather intertwined with the realities of the 20th century.

Throughout 20th century, the role of women in Dutch society and in architecture changed under the influence of the first, second, third and fourth feminist waves. At the beginning of the 20th century, some women broke the gender barriers in architecture, a field traditionally dominated by men (Smeets-Klokgieters, 2022).
The purpose of this thesis is to examine, through social and historical factors related to the role of women in both architecture and society, how the position of women in these fields has changed over the past century. This is explored through the lives and works of the two pioneering Dutch female architects Margaret Staal-Kropholler and Liesbeth van der Pol. Hence, the research question is formulated as follows:
‘How do the lives and works of the two Dutch pioneer architects Margaret Staal-Kropholler and Liesbeth van der Pol reflect the influence of the changing role of women in architecture in the 20th / 21st century in the Netherlands?’
In order to answer the research question, a literature review and an interview were conducted. The literature review includes books and articles from different centuries, providing a comprehensive understanding of how views on the role of women in society and architecture have evolved over the past hundred years. It also includes an interview with Liesbeth van der Pol, which provides further insight into her thoughts about women in architecture during the late 20th /early 21st century.
The lives of Margaret Staal-Kropholler and Liesbeth van der Pol offer interesting insights into the changing role of women in society and architecture in the Netherlands. Margaret Staal-Kropholler is regarded as the first female Dutch architect, she lived in a time when women rarely entered the architectural profession (Kuperus & van Kessel, 1990). She showed that women were not inferior to the, until then, male-dominated profession. Throughout Liesbeth van der Pol’s career, the presence and influence of women in modern architecture grew. Despite the fact that approximately half of all architecture students are female, only 23% of working architects are women (Alkemade, 2021). As the first female State Architect of the Netherland, she can be seen as a pioneer and a role model for many female architects and architecture students. Van der Pol encourages women in this field to be confident and make their voices heard within the profession.
Together, these two architects represent a shift in perception and participation of women within Dutch architecture. The lives and works of Margaret Staal-Kropholler and Liesbeth van der Pol are part of the ongoing evolution of gender equality within this field.

This research paper studies the evolution of the Arab-Norman style in sacred monuments across Sicily, mainly in Palermo and adjacent cities, from the 9th to 12th century. The focus is on three edifices: the Monreale Cathedral, San Cataldo Church and Cathedral-Basilica of Cefalù. The premise of the research is to explore the cultural convergence of Byzantine, Moorish and Norman styles, and how it led to the creation of the unique, Arab-Norman style. Through a diverse, interdisciplinary line of action, using historical records, cultural context and previously written academic papers the extent of the influence of the three styles will be explored.

The research aims to explore the role of women in the field of architecture, examining their work, participation, and impact to enhance the visibility of their contributions. In a survey of the world’s 100 biggest architecture practices, only three were headed by women, and just two had as many female managers as male, according to magazine Dezeen in November (Matthew Ponsford, CNN, 2018). The question here isn’t just about asking about the absence of woman architects, but the call is to infuse equity for women in the real sense in the architectural profession by talking about the visibility of women in architecture. The notion of architecture as a profession dominated by men should be discarded. The realities of the profession demonstrate that women have adeptly integrated into the traditionally male-dominated culture.

“Feminism isn’t about making women stronger. Women are strong, it’s about changing the
the way the world perceives the strength” (G.D Anderson, 2019)

With a notable absence of visibility in the past, magazines represent a pivotal shift towards inclusivity and recognition within the architectural community. Through captivating narratives, they celebrate the talent and resilience of architects, inspiring future generations to break barriers and thrive in the field. After thoroughly reviewing magazine publications focusing on female architects, a notable trend emerged: they were predominantly published post-2012. Furthermore, renowned magazines like Azure, a Canadian media outlet featuring “30 Must-Know Women Architects,” or Dezeen from London highlighting “The 50
Most Powerful Women in Architecture and Design,” along with Rethinking the Future, an online platform based in India showcasing “20 Women in Architecture of the 21st Century Shaping the World,” each only mentioned one woman architect from India.

When examining the realm of female architects in India, only two books have been published on the subject. Madhavi Desai authored “Women Architects and Modernism in India: Narratives and Contemporary Practices” in 2017, while Mary N. Woods penned “Women Architects in India: Histories of Practice in Mumbai and Delhi” in the same year. Initially, they collaborated on a single book, but later diverged, resulting in two distinct publications with slightly varied perspectives and selection criteria for women architects. Madhavi Desai revealed in an interview that, “It took 10 years to write because I had no funding and no institutional support. I had to work on it slowly over time, interviewing women if I happened to fly into a particular city for another project. It was very sporadic. It was challenging to source the material on these women, as they were largely invisible. It seemed impossible to find enough material on them. There is hardly any archival material available.” (Parlour Collective, 2020)

Although the above-mentioned books have catalogued and provided brief essays on approximately 40 female architects in India, they still fall short of offering comprehensive insights into each individual. Therefore, my research endeavours to concentrate on architect Neera Adarkar, with an attempt to trace her contributions within the intricate tapestry of India’s economic and political landscape. The aim is to unveil the intricacies of her influence on the architectural domain. Through thorough analysis and investigation, the research aims to shed light on the profound impact of Adarkar’s designs and ideologies in shaping India’s built environment.

This research explores the evolving relationship between temple architecture and the temple community during Thailand's Rattanakosin period. It reveals insights into the nation's ethos and cultural richness. Buddhism, central to Thai identity, shapes communal life in Thai temples, or Wats. Admit three key case studies—Wat Phra Kaew, Wat Arun, and Wat Pho—this study looks into the correlation between architecture, history, religion, society, and culture. Wat Phra Kaew, a royal chapel, represents royal patronage and spiritual symbolism as the prime example of the nation. Wat Arun, shaped by monarchs and community demands, features its iconic Phra Prang adorned with intricate porcelain. The Prang became a cultural beacon along the Chao Phraya River. Wat Pho, transformed by King Rama I, epitomizes artistic and spiritual devotion with its trapezoidal layout inspired by Buddhist cosmology, becoming a hub of education, medicine, and communal rituals. Wat Pho, symbolizes artistic and spiritual devotion through its trapezoidal layout inspired by Buddhist cosmology and overtime has evolved into a hub for education, medicine. The relationship between temple architecture and the temple community during the Rattanakosin period has evolved in different ways, with each influencing the other dynamically. The relationship developed into a stronger, more supportive, and increasingly significant bond, which remains a vital part of Thailand's cultural identity today, continuing to grow and evolve.

The Protestant Evangelical religion is defined by its focus on spreading the gospel. Evangelical churches do not consider their churches as sacred, but rather as spaces for worship and community. Consequently, their architectural church designs deviate from traditional church designs. This thesis explores the architectural development of Protestant Evangelical churches in the United States, spanning the period from 1800 to 2002. It delves into how these architectural developments have both responded to and interacted with contemporary societal demands. By examining the relationship between the church architecture and the societal demands, this research highlights the dynamic nature of Evangelical church architecture. Through its analysis, this study underscores the resilience and adaptability of the Protestant Evangelical religion. It presents the evangelical church’s architectural development as a narrative of innovation, reinvented tradition, and community growth.

‘The Emergence of Women Architects in Romania’ aims to uncover a recent past. It investigates the circumstances in which female architects started to pursue their careers. This paper examines the challenges and difficulties that women have faced and focuses on how the political context influenced the availability of work opportunities.

The world is warming up, causing a rise in water levels. The Netherlands has a rich history in the field of water protection: throughout the centuries, the country has increasingly improved its defenses with the help of new techniques, technological advancements, and better regulated management. However, since the end of the previous century, there has been a shift in the way water is dealt with. No langer is the motto "keeping the water out," but rather "learning to live with water."

This thesis investigates the reasons behind this change in Dutch policy by answering the following question: 'What are the historica/ architectura/ adaptations of the Netherlands before 1953 to effectively hand/e water within the face of rising water levels and why did this strategy change after 1953 from 'keeping the water out' to 'learning to live with water?' To answer this question correctly, two periods, each with sub-periods, have been examined: before the flood disaster of 1953, and from 1953 to the present.

When examinIng the sub-periods, the relationship between catastrophic events, water management, and technological advancements was looked at. By addressing architectural cases, this relationship could be clearly defined. The results indicate a correlation between when these events occur and how they are responded to with technology and water management. Another correlation was observed in how technological progress also led to better organization: improved technology enabled larger projects, which in turn required larger farms of water management.

However, the flood disaster of 1953 revealed that there is a limit to protection against water. The floods of 1953, 1993, and 1995 made the Dutch realize that merely protecting against water is not sufficient; a new strategy of water management was needed, one in which we also learn to live with water. This strategy must ensure that the Netherlands remains safe from water in the future, even with the expected rise in sea-and river levels.

The Watersnoodramp (North Sea flood) of 1953 forever altered the landscape and lives of people in the Netherlands. The destruction of architecture in affected regions needed to be quickly rebuild in order to get lives back to normal as soon as possible. Internationally, countries came to help by donating houses to the Netherlands. Seventy years later, these houses are still dispersed in the three affected provinces in the Netherlands. The houses are proof of international aid and generosity and play an important part in Dutch history, however the awareness of these houses is fading.
This research is dedicated to reveal the impact the gifted houses made on the reconstruction in Schouwen-Duiveland. By revising history and observing now, this research puts the long-term development (1953-2023) of these houses into perspective and highlights the strengths and weaknesses that can be recognised in order to learn from them in contemporary practices.
Through an analysis of historical archives, news articles, books and fieldwork, this study investigates the multifaceted effects of international donations of prefabricated houses on the region's recovery process. Not a lot of academic research has been done on this topic, as only recently (2020-2023), the topic of protecting this piece of history has arised in the public, leaving a large gap of research of around 60 years.
Schouwen-Duiveland has been affected most in terms of architectural damages by the Watersnoodramp. For this reason, most gifted houses were distributed over this island. The gifted houses made it possible for people to return to Schouwen-Duiveland relatively quick. The houses weren't entirely to Dutch customs, but alterations that were made created larger acceptance within communities.
The gifted houses boosted the economy and have still proven their worth within the communities on Schouwen-Duiveland and other affected areas because of their qualities and location.
Another Watersnoodramp is not unthinkable. In the future, the practice of gifting houses remains a valuable contribution for future reconstruction efforts in other disaster-hit areas. An ideal gifted house for everyone can never be designed, but cultural differences and unique character can contribute to the story-telling within cityscapes. To ensure suitability and acceptance, cultural differences, variety and flexibility are important aspects to be included in the design of a gifted house.

This thesis examines various aspects of the influences on Bonairean architecture. The focus of this thesis is to add to the research gap of buildings on Bonaire, as Bonaire has been considered less important than the bigger islands. This thesis looks into how the development of the architecture of Bonaire in the period of slavery up to the modern day can be understood from a history of colonization. The research is done through interviews, literature and archival research, and a series of case studies. The conclusion indicates that throughout history Bonaire has changed ownership several times, from Spanish colonizer to the British and Dutch, with the Dutch being the ones who had the most influence when it comes to buildings and architectural expression.

When it comes to buildings before and after the abolishment of slavery, there are a lot of resemblances. The typologies: church and school have a direct relationship with each other due to Religion being an important aspect at that time. When talking about the materials it can be concluded that coral rocks, lime, and wood have been the main choices for buildings dating back before and after the Dutch colonized Bonaire. Furthermore, reinforced concrete, glass, and steel were used in the modern period. The period after the abolishment of slavery , Bonaire had buildings that were still connected to the Dutch influences and architectural styles and not directly connected to world trends. However, in the mid-20th century modernization related to Europe and the Americas can strongly be seen, when Modern styles like Functionalism were internationalized.

Starting with the 14th century, Principality of Moldova inhabited the territories between Nistru River, the Black sea, Danube and the Carpathian Mountains. This location, although having well-delimited natural borders, represented the intersection of multiple spheres of influence such as the intersection between the Ottoman Empire and the European Monarchies, Islam and Christianity etc.
Since 1504 Moldova has been in a decline which led to its occupation under Ottoman rule, which was followed by ruthless oppressions of the state in terms of law, economy and rule. Nevertheless, the harshest oppression was experienced under the Russian occupation. With the treaty of Bucharest in 1812, the territory of Moldova is ruptured in two regions – Basarabia which was ceded to the Russian Empire, and Moldova that stayed under Ottoman occupation for 50 more years. This paper aims to shed light in the transition of vernacular residential architecture from Basarabia under the denationalization policies established by the Russian Empire. This will be followed by a comparative study with the architectural development of the unoccupied region of Moldova. The research question is posed: What are the characteristics of the Moldovan vernacular architecture in Basarabia and how did it change in the 19th century in comparison with the Non-occupied region of Moldova ?
The content of the research starts with a brief text explaining the lay of the land, internal/external factors that influenced Moldovan society, culture and architecture. The historical descriptive chapter is followed by an extensive description on the typical architecture of the residences in rural regions and their building technology. The chapter would subsequently describe the local residential typologies in terms of space and area.
The research further broadens into two chapters explaining the traditional ornamentation and dimensions/structure subsequently. This allows a broader overview into the similarities, identities and differences of the minorities that inhabited the land that is described in the next chapter - Regional and Ethnic characteristics of Moldovan residential vernacular architecture.
To answer the last part of the research question, comparative study is presented in the conclusion chapter of the research, it simultaneously leads to more questions that this research managed to tackle and prospects of study.
The conclusion of this research states that although the local population met little to no interaction between West and East Moldova (Basarabia) their architectural identities stayed the same in terms of components and ornamentics. It is of course important to underline that while the occidental part of Moldova developed further its decorative crafts, the oriental one saw multiple changes due to the new minorities that were forced into the province.

This thesis aims to find a correlation between the geometric symbolism used in the design of the Greek Parthenon and the contemporary zeitgeist of philosophical anthropology. It will do so by creating a collective narrative combining the disciplines of architecture, mathematics and philosophy.
Our anthropological predisposition as humans to obtain knowledge has led us to be the only species on earth to create philosophical theories about our purpose on earth. Symbolism plays a defining role within architecture as a means to represent the philosophical anthropology zeitgeist of certain civilisations. The discipline of mathematics plays a leading role in the development of philosophical anthropology because it was a way of actualizing and physically displaying symbolism through geometry. Especially during the Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Greek civilisations, mathematics and philosophy have been closely related.
Through geometric analyses of the Parthenon, one of the most well-known and representative works of monumental Greek architecture, a strong relation to the philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras was found. The geometric techniques found in the analyses were examined in their philosophical context to relate them back to the philosophical anthropological zeitgeist of the Hellenic period in Greece. This thesis concludes that Pythagoras, and by extension the Pythagoreans, has had a strong influence on the zeitgeist of Greek philosophical anthropology and that this has become evident in the Greek built environment.

The architectural history thesis "Building a legacy brick by brick: The Metzelaars contribution to Courthouse Architecture in the Netherlands during the 19th and 20th Century" investigates the impact of Johan Frederik Metzelaar and Willem Cornelis Metzelaar on the design and construction of courthouses in the Netherlands. The thesis poses the research question, "What did father and son Metzelaar contribute to courthouse architecture in the Netherlands?" The four case studies in this thesis delve into the design and history of courthouses, examining the architectural style, spatial program, layout, and function of the buildings. Additionally, the research considers the historical context in which the Metzelaars worked, including the architecture style debate of the 19th century.
The study fills a gap in the literature on the Metzelaars and their impact on courthouse architecture using a combination of primary and secondary literature, archival research, and site visits.
Overall, this thesis provides valuable insights into the evolution of courthouse architecture in the Netherlands during the 19th and early 20th centuries. It highlights the role of the Metzelaars in shaping the architectural landscape of the country, while also providing a historical context for their work.

'Sheltering the Mountains' investigates and discusses the relationship between humans and the natural environment through the lens of high-altitude architecture. Focusing on a specific period from the 17th century to the present day, the research traces the development of architectural techniques used in extreme environments and analyses how they reflect and shape human behaviour towards nature.
Through an interdisciplinary approach that combines architectural and mountaineering history, environmental psychology, and anthropology, this thesis investigates the interconnections between architecture and human adaptation to the challenges posed by high-altitude environments. Drawing on a range of case studies, including mountain shelters, refuges and observatories, the research demonstrates how the Alps have become a tourist destination and its significance for our relationship with nature.
In addition to analysing the functional aspects of high-altitude architecture, this thesis explores the aesthetic and symbolic dimensions of these structures. It argues that architecture in extreme environments not
only serves practical purposes, but also embodies cultural and social values, and reflects broader attitudes towards nature and the environment.
The research concludes by reflecting on the lessons that can be drawn from the history of high-altitude architecture for contemporary debates about sustainable architecture and the relationship between humans and the natural world. It suggests that a deeper understanding of the ways in which architecture and the environment interact can inform the design of more effective and sustainable solutions for evolving in extreme environments, and contribute to a more harmonious relationship between humans and nature.