We use a combination of experimental design, sketch-based reservoir modelling and flow diagnostics to rapidly screen the impact of sedimentological heterogeneities that constitute baffles and barriers on CO ₂ migration in depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs and saline aquifers of the Sherwood Sandstone Group and Bunter Sandstone Formation, UK. These storage units consist of fluvial sandstones with subordinate aeolian sand-stones, floodplain and sabkha heteroliths and lacustrine mudstones. The predominant control on effective hor-izontal permeability is the lateral continuity of aeolian-sandstone intervals. Effective vertical permeability is controlled by the lateral extent, thickness and abundance of lacustrine-mudstone layers and aeolian-sandstone layers, and the mean lateral extent and mean vertical spacing of carbonate-cemented basal channel lags in fluvial facies-association layers. The baffling effect on CO ₂ migration and retention is approximated by the pore vol-ume injected at breakthrough time, which is controlled largely by three heterogeneities, in order of decreasing impact: (1) the lateral continuity of aeolian-sandstone intervals; (2) the lateral extent of lacustrine-mudstone lay-ers; and (3) the thickness and abundance of fluvial-sandstone, aeolian-sandstone, floodplain-and-sabkha-heter-olith and lacustrine-mudstone layers. Future effort should be focused on characterizing these three heterogeneities as a precursor for later capillary, dissolution and mineral trapping.

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Sketch-based interface and modelling is an approach to reservoir modelling that allows rapid and intuitive creation of 3D reservoir models to test and evaluate geological concepts and hypotheses and thus explore the impact of geological uncertainty on reservoir behaviour. A key advantage of such modelling is the quick creation and quantitative evaluation of reservoir model prototypes. Flow diagnostics capture key aspects of reservoir flow behaviour under simplified physical conditions that enable the rapid solution of the governing equations, and are essential for such quantitative evaluation. In this paper, we demonstrate a novel and highly efficient implementation of a flow diagnostics framework, illustrated with applications to geological storage of CO2. Our implementation permits ‘on-the-fly’ estimation of the key reservoir properties that control CO2 migration and storage during the active injection period when viscous forces dominate. The results substantially improve the efficiency of traditional reservoir modelling and simulation workflows by highlighting key reservoir uncertainties that need to be evaluated in subsequent full-physics reservoir simulations that account for the complex interplay of viscous, gravity, and capillary forces.

The methods are implemented in the open-source Rapid Reservoir Modelling software, which includes a simple to use graphical user interface with no steep learning curve. We present proof-of-concept studies of the new flow diagnostics implementation to investigate the CO2 storage potential of sketched 3D models of shallow marine sandstone tongues and deep water slope channels.@en

We discuss the application of the new open-source Rapid Reservoir Modelling software (RRM) to create a suite of 3D reservoir models of a complex carbonate formation where each model is increasingly more refined such that progressively more small-scale geological structures are preserved. Using flow diagnostics we then calculate key metrics for the dynamic reservoir behaviour to quantify the similarities and dissimilarities of the flow behaviour across the different models. This analysis allows us to identify at which scale geological heterogeneities need to be resolved in the reservoir model to capture the essential flow behaviours. The workflow presented in this study hence allows us to efficiently and effectively test different geological concepts and analyse how multi-scale geological heterogeneities that may need to be represented in a reservoir model impact the predicted dynamic response, so as to design more reliable and robust reservoir models for a broad range of geoenergy applications.@en

Production of subsurface heat from geothermal sources and subsurface storage of heat (and cool) are important for energy transition. Doublets for geothermal and warm- and cold wells for aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) depend on circulation of fluids and heat. Estimating the potential and feasibility of such systems requires a careful analysis with simulation of fluid flow and heat transport. As building models and running simulations are time-consuming, a prototyping approach is beneficial to quickly assess viability and sensitivity of such systems. Sketch-based geological modelling combined with flow diagnostics forms the ideal for such a prototyping approach. Geological models can be sketched in 3D in a couple of minutes. Flow diagnostics then provides several key metrics on predicted flow behaviour. The quick turnaround time from sketching to quantitative results is key to understand the impact of heterogeneity on flow and helps to decide which detailed geological models and flow simulations are useful to carry out. This prototyping approach is applied to aquifers in shallow marine deposits, as proxy for thermal breakthrough time in geothermal doublet system and to estimate well spacing between cold and hot wells for ATES.@en

We use a method combining experimental design, sketch-based reservoir modelling, and single-phase flow diagnostics to rapidly screen the impact of sedimentological heterogeneities that constitute baffles and barriers to CO2 migration in the Johansen and Cook formations at the Northern Lights CO2 storage site. The types and spatial organisation of sedimentological heterogeneities in the wave-dominated deltaic sandstones of the Johansen-Cook storage unit are constrained using core data from the 31/5-7 (Eos) well, previous interpretations of seismic data and regional well-log correlations, and outcrop and subsurface analogues. Delta planform geometry, clinoform dip, and facies-association interfingering extent along clinoforms control: (1) the distribution and connectivity of high-permeability medial and proximal delta-front sandstones, (2) effective horizontal and vertical permeability characteristics of the storage unit, and (3) pore volumes injected at breakthrough time (which approximates the efficiency of stratigraphic baffling). In addition, the lateral continuity of carbonate-cemented concretionary layers along transgressive surfaces impacts effective vertical permeability, and bioturbation intensity impacts effective horizontal and vertical permeability. The combined effects of these and other heterogeneities are also influential. Our results suggest that the baffling effect on CO2 migration and retention of sedimentological heterogeneity is an important precursor for later capillary, dissolution and mineral trapping.@en

We use a method combining experimental design, sketch-based reservoir modelling, and flow diagnostics to rapidly screen the impact of sedimentological heterogeneities on CO2 migration and storage by stratigraphic trapping. Experimental design allows efficient exploration of a wide parameter space, sketch-based modelling enables rapid construction of deterministic models of interpreted geological scenarios, and flow diagnostics provide computationally cheap approximations of full-physics, multiphase simulations that are reasonable for many subsurface-flow conditions. Integrated sketch-based reservoir modelling and flow diagnostics are implemented in open source research code (Rapid Reservoir Modelling, RRM). The method is applied to two case studies: (1) the Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Group and Bunter Sandstone Formation, UK, which comprise fluvial-aeolian sandstones, floodplain and sabkha heteroliths, and lacustrine mudstones; and (2) the Jurassic Johansen and Cook formations, offshore western Norway, which record progradation of a wave-dominated delta system. Results for the two case studies are compared using effective permeability (kx, ky, kz) and pore volume injected at breakthrough time (a measure of how much injected fluid is stored in the model volume as a result of stratigraphic trapping).@en

Subsurface reservoir models have a high degree of uncertainty regarding reservoir geometry and structure. A range of conceptual models should therefore be generated to explore how fluids-in-place, reservoir dynamics, and development decisions are affected by such uncertainty. The rapid reservoir modelling (RRM) workflow has been developed to prototype reservoir models across scales and test their dynamic behaviour. RRM complements existing workflows in that conceptual models can be prototyped, explored, compared, and ranked rapidly prior to detailed reservoir modelling. Reservoir geology is sketched in 2D with geological operators and translated in real-time into geologically correct 3D models. Flow diagnostics provide quantitative information for these reservoir model prototypes about their static and dynamic behaviours. A tracing algorithm is reviewed and implemented to compute time-of-flight and tracer concentrations efficiently on unstructured grids. Numerical well testing (NWT) is adopted in RRM to further interrogate the reservoir model. A new edge-based fast marching method is developed and implemented to solve the diffusive time-of-flight for approximating pressure transients efficiently on unstructured tetrahedral meshes. We demonstrate that an implementation of the workflow consisting of integrated sketch-based interface modelling, unstructured mesh generation, flow diagnostics, and numerical well testing is possible.

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Hydrocarbon reservoir models have a high degree of uncertainty regarding their reservoir geometry and structure. A range of conceptual models should therefore be generated to explore how first-order uncertainties impact fluids-in-place, reservoir dynamics, and development decisions. However, it is very time consuming to generate and explore a large number of conceptual models using conventional reservoir modelling and simulation workflows. Key reservoir concepts are therefore often locked in early and are difficult to change later. To overcome this challenge, the Rapid Reservoir Modelling (RRM) software has been developed to prototype reservoir models across scales and test their dynamic behaviour. RRM complements existing workflows in that conceptual models can be prototyped, explored, compared, and ranked rapidly prior to detailed reservoir modelling. Reservoir geology is sketched in 2D with geological operators and translated in real-time into geologically correct 3D models. Flow diagnostics provide quantitative information for these reservoir model prototypes about their static and dynamic behaviours. Numerical well testing (NWT) is implemented to further interrogate the reservoir model. The combination of surface-based reservoir modelling with geological operators, flow diagnostics and NWT on unstructured grids enable, for the first time rapid prototyping of reservoir geologies with real-time feedback on fluid flow behaviour.

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Flow diagnostics is a common way to rank and cluster ensembles of reservoir models depending on their approximate dynamic behavior before beginning full-physics reservoir simulation. Traditionally, they have been performed on corner-point grids inherent to geocellular models. The rapid-reservoir-modeling (RRM) concept aims at fast and intuitive prototyping of geologically realistic reservoir models. In RRM, complex reservoir heterogeneities are modeled as discrete volumes bounded by surfaces that are sketched in real time. The resulting reservoir models are discretized by use of fully unstructured tetrahedral meshes where the grid conforms to the reservoir geometry, hence preserving the original geological structures that have been modeled. This paper presents a computationally efficient work flow for flow diagnostics on fully unstructured grids. The control-volume finite-element method (CVFEM) is used to solve the elliptic pressure equation. The flux field is a multipoint flux approximation (MPFA). A new tracing algorithm is developed on a reduced monotone acyclic graph for the hyperbolic transport equations of time of flight (TOF) and tracer distributions. An optimal reordering technique is used to deal with each control volume locally such that the hyperbolic equations can be computed in an efficient node-by-node manner. This reordering algorithm scales linearly with the number of unknowns. The results of these computations allow us to estimate swept-reservoir volumes, injector/producer pairs, well-allocation factors, flow capacity, storage capacity, and dynamic Lorenz coefficients, which all help approximate the dynamic reservoir behavior. The total central-processing-unit (CPU) time, including grid generation and flow diagnostics, is typically a few seconds for meshes with O (100,000) unknowns. Such fast calculations provide, for the first time, real-time feedback in the dynamic reservoir behavior while models are prototyped.@en

Flow-diagnostics are a common way to rank and cluster ensembles of reservoir models based on their approximate dynamic behaviour prior to commencing full-physics reservoir simulation. Traditionally, flow diagnostics are carried out on corner-point grids inherent to geocellular models. The novel "Rapid Reservoir Modelling" (RRM) concept enables fast and intuitive prototyping and updating of reservoir models. In RRM, complex reservoir heterogeneities are modelled as discrete volumes bounded by surfaces that can be modified using simple sketching operations in real time. The resulting reservoir models are discretized using fully unstructured 3D meshes where the grid conforms to the reservoir geometry. This paper presents a new and computationally efficient numerical scheme that enables flow diagnostic calculations on fully unstructured grids. Time-of-flight and steady-state tracer distributions are computed directly on the grid. The results of these computations allows us to estimate swept reservoir volumes, injector-producer pairs, well-allocation factors, flow capacity, storage capacity and dynamic Lorenz coefficients which all help approximate the dynamic reservoir behaviour. We use the Control Volume Finite Element Method (CVFEM) to solve the elliptic pressure equation. A scalable matrix solver (SAMG) is used to invert the linear system. A new edge-based CVFEM is developed to solve hyperbolic transport equations for time-of-flight and tracer distributions. An optimal reordering technique is employed to deal with each control volume locally such that the hyperbolic equations can be computed in an efficient node-by-node manner. This reordering algorithm scales linearly with the number of unknowns. The total CPU time, including grid generation and flow diagnostics, is typically below 3 seconds for grids with 50k unknowns. Such fast calculations provide, for the first time, real-time feedback on changes in the dynamic reservoir behaviour while the reservoir model is updated.

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