This article discusses whether or to what extent flocculation plays a role in the saline deep-sea environment and whether sediment plumes generated by deep-sea mining activities are affected by the process of flocculation. The results of our laboratory study demonstrate that deep sea mineral clay with a median floc size of 20 μm can flocculate quickly within 2.5 min of mixing to form flocs with a median floc size of about 50–150 μm and outliers as large as 500 μm in size due to the presence of natural organic matter. At high shear (turbulent mixing), a threshold of about 125 s−1 was found above which, organic matter can successfully bind to clay. Above 125 s−1, the steady-state floc size is also found to increase linearly with shear. In low energetic conditions (when flocs experience mainly differential settling), the median floc sizes are found to be 2 or 3 times larger than at turbulent mixing. As expected, the rate of flocculation is greater at higher clay concentrations. At long mixing times, the median floc size is found to decrease due to the breaking/reconformation of flocs. Experiments performed to study the ageing of flocs at rest demonstrated that a dynamic process was ongoing between the organic matter and the clay. It is hypothesized that the organic matter present has amphiphilic properties. Over time, the organic matter would rearrange itself such as to maximize its contact area with the mineral clay, resulting in two effects, depending on the structure of the flocs. In the case of flocs formed at high shear, it led to a rupture of flocs. A slow agitation of settled flocs, having previously experienced low shear conditions, on the other hand, led to aggregation. Overall, the results found in the present article show that flocculation likely plays a significant role in deep-sea areas.@en

In this work a high-magnification digital video camera in combination with a settling column is used to study in a first part the influence of the amount of flocs transferred into the settling column on their settling velocity. In a second part, the setup was used to study the properties of flocs prepared at different clay concentrations but at same flocculant to clay ratio (2.5mgg−1). Illite clay was used and flocculated in a 1 L jar with an anionic polyacrylamide (flocculant). Results show that the average settling velocity of flocs is a function of the amount of transferred flocs. It was also found that floc size and settling velocity depend on clay concentration. This is attributed to the fast aggregation happening in the jar when flocculant and clay are mixed: at higher clay concentrations, larger flocs are created in the first minutes of the experiment, with low densities that prevent them from settling to the bottom of the jar.@en

Instead of maintenance dredging, an alternative option for port authorities is to adapt the PIANC's nautical bottom approach. For practical purposes, the nautical bottom is defined as the level at which the fluid mud reaches either a critical density or a critical yield stress (the shear strength). These values generally correspond to a level at which the mud undergoes a so-called "rheological transition", where the density and strength of the mud increase rapidly over a short distance. Below this level, the mud becomes more and more like solid ground and is therefore no longer navigable.
Recently, new scientific and practical research has been conducted in order to gain additional knowledge on navigability in ports with fluid mud layers. In particular, a systematic rheological analysis was conducted to determine the critical limits of the yield stresses and density of fluid mud. Furthermore, a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model was developed to numerically investigate the ship-mud interaction. The model was applied to study the effects of muddy bottoms on the full-scale resistance of a modern oil tanker at speeds between 3 and 9 knots. It was confirmed that not only the density but also the yield stress of the fluid mud should be considered in the practical application of the nautical bottom. Finally, the paper discussed how the standard maintenance dredging methods can be used for producing navigable fluid mud layers.@en

Reducing waiting times is crucial for ports to be efficient and competitive. Important causes of waiting times are cascading interactions between realistic hydrodynamics, accessibility policies, vessel-priority rules, and detailed berth availability. The main challenges are determining the cause of waiting and finding rational solutions to reduce waiting time. In this study, we focus on the role of the design depth of a channel on the waiting times. We quantify the performance of channel depth for a representative fleet rather than the common approach of a single normative design vessel. The study relies on a mesoscale agent-based discrete-event model that can take processed Automatic Identification System and hydrodynamic data as its main input. The presented method’s validity is assessed by hindcasting one year of observed anchorage area laytimes for a liquid bulk terminal in the Port of Rotterdam. The hindcast demonstrates that the method predicts the causes of 73.4% of the non-excessive laytimes of vessels, thereby correctly modelling 60.7% of the vessels-of-call. Following a recent deepening of the access channel, cascading waiting times due to tidal restrictions were found to be limited. Nonetheless, the importance of our approach is demonstrated by testing alternative maintained bed level designs, revealing the method’s potential to support rational decision-making in coastal zones.@en

Ports and waterways are key in supporting the waterborne supply chains that form the backbone of global trade. Maintaining adequate water depth is vital for accessibility and safe navigation. Port authorities and contractors are the key players in developing maintenance strategies, and they strive for a mutually beneficial compromise. Port authorities aim to optimize port performance while keeping costs and delays at acceptable levels. Contractors aim to optimize the use of equipment and execution strategies to achieve cost-effectiveness and time efficiency. While minimum cost and duration are common and simple decision criteria, there is growing societal pressure to incorporate smart, sustainable, and circular elements. However, these elements are less straightforward to interpret and there is a lack of a comprehensive framework to quantify smart, circular, and sustainable strategies. This lack of clarity presents significant challenges in balancing traditional and emerging objectives in port maintenance. Our study directly addresses this gap by providing a structured approach to decision-making that integrates these critical but complex elements. As a result, trade-offs on these important issues are harder to achieve reducing the contributions of port authorities and contractors. This study addresses this gap by applying the Frame of Reference (FoR) method to extract objectives and indicators for decision-making from both the port authorities' and contractors' perspectives. We fill in the prescribed elements of the basic FoR template through a systematic literature review (SLR), clarifying to what extent consensus exists on these topics. The SLR revealed 128 articles and identified common strategies, research methods, influential journals, and contributing countries. Projecting these findings onto the basic FoR template showed that the protection of marine ecosystems and sediment management has received considerable attention from researchers while mitigating emissions and adopting smart techniques are emerging subjects in the literature that need further investigations. As a result, this study offers theoretical and managerial insights to improve what can be achieved with smart, circular, and sustainable maintenance strategies, while identifying crucial remaining knowledge gaps.@en

The presence of mud layers on the bottom of ports and waterways can have negative effects on the hydrodynamic behaviour of marine vessels. This numerical study investigates the effect of muddy seabeds on the full-scale resistance of an oil tanker sailing straight ahead. The objective is to determine the influence of factors such as the densimetric Froude number, UKC and mud rheology at speeds between 3 and 9 knots. The numerical study is conducted using a finite-volume Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) flow solver combined with the Volume-Of-Fluid (VOF) method to capture the mud–water interface. At certain critical speeds, the presence of mud increased the ship’s total resistance by up to 15 times compared to the case with solid bottoms. The non-Newtonian rheology of mud was found to influence the ship’s resistance mainly at low speeds and when sailing through the mud layer. This article also shows that, when sailing through mud, the computed resistance at high speeds may be underestimated because of two effects, namely ‘water lubrication’ and ‘numerical ventilation’.@en

Coandă-effect-based collection stands out as the foremost technology in polymetallic-nodule mining due to the absence of direct contact between the collector and the ocean floor. Yet, this collection method disturbs the ocean floor, and minimizing such disturbance is crucial from an environmental viewpoint. To this end, a solid understanding of the interplay between the collector and the sediment bed is required. Therefore, we carried out a series of small-scale experiments, where a collector drives over a subaqueous clayey bed. These experiments provide the very first quantitative data on cohesive sediment erosion caused by a moving Coandă-effect-based collector, as well as on turbidity currents generated behind the collector head. This paper discusses the observations and findings derived from these experiments. Our findings reveal a logarithmic relationship between erosion depth and the flow impinging force applied on the clayey bed. An increased flow rate in the collection duct results in a slower turbidity current generated behind the collector head. This study enhances the ability to forecast sediment erosion caused by Coandă-effect-based collectors, offering the possibility to optimize the collector operational conditions and minimize the magnitude of the resulting sediment plumes.@en

The insights gained from deep-sea mining (DSM) research regarding sediment dynamics can be utilized to better predict turbidity plumes in shallow marine environments. Small-scale lab experiments can replicate deep-sea conditions effectively, offering an ideal model system to study turbidity currents, given the reduced hydrodynamics and low biota present in the deep sea. DSM operations involve the deployment of a Polymetallic Nodule Mining Tool (PNMT) that collects ore and discharges excess water and sediments. Organic matter, bound to mineral clay as floes, is a key driver of sediment transport in the deep sea. Understanding the dispersal and settling patterns of sediments, and the likelihood of flocculation occurring in DSM activities, can be generalized and applied to turbid flows in shallow water areas. Laboratory experiments demonstrate that the interaction between organic matter, mineral clay, and floes within turbidity currents, results in the reduction of their dispersion. Alongside this, factors like shear rate and sediment concentration significantly influence both floe growth, size and settling velocities. Combining these results with real-time data on sediment concentration, particle size distribution, turbidity, and flow dynamics can be helpful to make dredging decisions, reduce the environmental disruption, and guide dredging equipment selection. By understanding the factors that influence sediment flocculation, deposition, and resuspension, we can design engineered solutions to mitigate the impact of turbidity current. @en

For future strategies in water depth maintenance in the Port of Hamburg, determining the navigability limit (i.e., the safe nautical depth) is of major importance. For this purpose, the project Nautical Depth was set up at the Hamburg Port Authority. The aim of the project is to measure a safe nautical depth under various boundary conditions and to identify limits for a safe passage in port areas with fluid mud. Among other things, the project is conducted in close collaboration with the Port of Antwerp Bruges, the Port of Rotterdam, and TU Delft within the research platform MUDNET (www.tudelft.nl/mudnet).

To gain the necessary acceptance for a reassessment of the nautical depth, it is important to determine the rheological properties of the sediment in-situ. Several existing survey devices for monitoring nautical relevant rheological sediment properties have been tested. However, these devices cannot be used for spatial determination of rheological properties as they only provide cross-sectional measurements and depth profiles. Therefore, new evaluation algorithms were developed to correlate echo sounding data with in-situ rheological properties to ensure spatial coverage of a safe nautical depth.

As a first step, hydrographic surveys and sampling campaigns were carried out to provide system knowledge of the water column and the riverbed. Basic scientific research on the rheological behaviour of the fluid mud was also carried out. In a second step, the safe conditions for adapting the fluid mud layers at the berths for the nautical bottom concept were investigated and new nautical depth approaches were introduced at different locations in the Port of Hamburg. The next step was to analyse the effect of the fluid mud on the manoeuvrability of the ships. To this end, existing Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) models were extended to determine the non-linear effects and forces of non-Newton fluids on ship hull, rudder, and propeller efficiency. The results of the CFD model have been and are being validated with hydraulic model tests (scale 1:60) and in-situ measurements in the Port of Hamburg. In a final step, the results of the CFD model will be used to adapt the software of existing ship handling simulators. These simulations will be used to define the safe boundary conditions and limits for a new nautical depth for vessels to navigate through the fluid mud.@en

The chapter gives an overview of the sediment dispersion generated by the mining process. Within the field of dredging engineering, ample experience is available regarding equipment, turbidity generated by equipment, and sediment transport processes. High up the environmental impact mitigation hierarchy are avoidance and minimization. That is where engineering can provide (part of) the solution. It is our aim to predict and consider how we can improve the mining process and equipment. Within this context, our focus is on those processes that are likely to take place close to the seabed. On the one hand, our work focuses on the prediction and reduction of the amount of sediment that might get suspended. On the other hand, considering the conditions under which the suspended sediment might be released in the most optimal way to reduce dispersion, we have performed and analysed small-scale and full-scale laboratory experiments of a hydraulic collector design and various dynamic sedimentation experiments.@en

Purpose: Maintenance dredging can often hinder port operations resulting in waiting times for seagoing vessels. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the dynamics between maintenance dredging activities and seagoing vessels, specifically focusing on how waiting times can be reduced. Then, the role of selecting different maintenance dredging strategies in reducing these waiting times is outlined. Methods: The study analyzes historical automatic identification system (AIS) data to identify the interaction between maintenance dredging and seagoing vessels and quantify the hindrance periods for the Mississippihaven case study in the Port of Rotterdam, the Netherlands. The trajectories of the vessels are analyzed in a simple case to show how the vessels interact and how the waiting times are quantified. The interactions are checked with the Port of Rotterdam for different port calls to ensure that maintenance dredging was the reason for these delays. Results: By analyzing the AIS data analysis of vessels in a given time window, the dredgers for maintenance work can be identified and their activities within or near the terminal can be determined. In addition, the waiting time of the seagoing vessel caused by the maintenance dredging is quantified at the terminal entrance. Conclusion: The study discusses how the maintenance dredging operations could be improved by adjusting the loading and sailing phases of maintenance dredging and provides some theoretical and managerial insights. Alternative port maintenance strategies to minimize the waiting time caused by the hindrance are also discussed.

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Purpose
Agitation dredging has gained popularity as an environmentally friendly and cost-effective method for port maintenance. One of the advantages of agitation dredging is the ability to transport sediments out of the port area using natural currents. The effect of the different agitation methods on sediment and water properties has rarely been investigated in a single pilot project. This research aims to study the effects of agitation methods in silt and sand-dominated areas that are frequently maintained.

Methods
The effects of water injection dredging, (WID) underwater ploughing (UWP) and Tiamat on sediment properties are investigated in the Port of Rotterdam. In-situ measurements and laboratory measurements are carried out to determine changes in the bed level, the particle size distribution of the bed, the turbidity in the water column and the dispersion distance of the sediment plume due to agitation dredging.

Results
The results of the in-situ monitoring of the agitation pilots allow a comparison of the changes in sediment and water properties before, during and after agitation dredging. The production, advantages and limitations of the tested agitation dredging methods are discussed.

Conclusion
The in-situ measurements show that WID, Tiamat and UWP can be successfully used for the agitation of sediments and their removal from the silt and sand-dominated areas. The production of the tested agitation methods is higher for silty than sandy sediments. In general, the selection of the agitation equipment can be made based on environmental regulations, sediment properties and hydrodynamic conditions.@en

Abstract: Efficient port operations require minimizing turnaround time which is the total duration of a vessel's stay in the port and encompasses waiting, maneuvering, berthing, and de-berthing times. The turnaround time can be reduced by optimizing arrivals and departures, maximizing berth availability, facilitating cargo handling, and maintaining water depth. Maintenance dredging, the primary method for maintaining water depth, is used as a continuous activity to ensure the available water depth is sufficient for the navigation of commercial (seagoing, inland, barges, etc.) vessels. The continuity of maintenance dredging interferes with commercial vessels that aim to be served in terminals. Despite the cost imposed on port authorities due to these interferences, addressing this challenge in a structured way is overlooked. To fill this gap, an open-source discrete-event model is presented in this study that employs agent-based simulation to model the interaction between seagoing and maintenance dredging processes. A simple case is proposed to provide an example of how this interaction is simulated. Then, the implications and limitations of this study are discussed and the directions for future research are recommended.@en

Safe navigation in ports and waterways subjected to siltation requires nautical depth monitoring. For this purpose, surveying vessels equipped with a zero-offset echo sounder and intrusive point measurements are frequently used. Because these measurements depend on the availability of a surveying vessel and require access to quay walls, such as at the container terminals in seaports, the temporal resolution is limited. Especially at these locations, a high temporal resolution monitoring system could allow for a higher occupancy rate. We propose to use Distributed Acoustic Sensing to monitor the nautical depth using fiber-optical cables. We install five horizontal fibers at different heights between two points and continuously record along the complete installation. Analysing the continuous recordings, we show that horizontal fibers can be used to monitor the water-mud interface depth with a vertical resolution around six mm. Multiple passive sources, like vessel movements and water currents, are used to estimate the water-mud interface.@en

Purpose
Recirculation dredging is a port maintenance concept developed in the Port of Emden, Germany to create a navigable fluid mud layer. This study investigates the effects of recirculation on key sediment properties, including density, yield stress, and oxygen concentration.

Methods
Six field monitoring surveys were carried out at two locations at different times of the year to assess changes before and after recirculation. Bathymetry, bulk density, yield stress, and oxygen concentration profiles were measured in situ. The settling properties and oxygen concentration levels on collected fluid mud samples were analyzed in the laboratory.

Results
The investigation reveals minimal changes in the density of recirculated fluid mud. However, the post-recirculation measurements showed a decrease in yield stress, ranging from 18 to 51% at Große Seeschleuse (GS) and 36% to 52% at Industriehafen (IH). The yield stress and density vary depending on the frequency of dredging. After structural density (1166 kg m−3 in GS and 1173 kg m−3 in IH), the yield stress of fluid mud increased exponentially. Therefore, monitoring of the yield stress is important for recirculation. A slight increase in oxygen concentration was observed post-recirculation, especially during winter. Yet, the rapid decline in oxygen levels post-mixing in the laboratory showed that sustaining long-term elevated oxygenation levels is not feasible by recirculation dredging alone.

Conclusions
The findings highlight the effectiveness of the recirculation on the yield stress, density, and oxygen concentration of fluid mud and illustrate the importance of considering both density and yield stress in sediment management practices. Future research should address the temporal evolution of density, yield stress, and oxygen levels following a dredging intervention and the influence of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and organic matter decay on sediment behavior.@en

We show results of of using distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) for continuous relative water-column changes monitoring by relating the oscillating frequencies to measurements of a nearby tidal-station. The oscillations have a great qualitative agreement with the tidal-station, having a period of 12 hours and 25 minutes. No calibration is required to measure the tides and the relative difference in water height, though calibration would allow measuring the absolute water height at any location. Because we used two poles with different exposure lengths to air, at different depths and only 38 m apart, we can interpret he spectral oscillations are a result of constructive interference in our poles, likely generated by the wind. DAS could be a very attractive alternative for tidal monitoring in shallow marine environments, ports and waterways. DAS could potentially resolve spatial resolution problems with tidal monitoring, which is currently cost-prohibited, at a relatively low expense by wrapping a fibre around a pre-existing structure such as a docking pole. Furthermore, DAS can be used remotely and continuously, allowing for better model calibrations or local tidal fluctuation monitoring. This monitoring system could help determine if ships have enough water clearance to dock and, in turn, increase the occupation rate.@en

A key challenge in the energy transition for Inland Water Transport is the functional design of bunker networks and first-order dimensioning of individual bunker stations. A fundamental ingredient for this is an improved understanding of how upstream energy supply (‘well-to-bunker-station’) and downstream demand (‘bunker-station-to-tank’) may interconnect. In this paper we discuss an approach to the design of bunkering networks that takes logistic modelling to estimate network scale energy demand as a starting point. Depending on the vessels that use the network and the anticipated fuel mix for the overall fleet, logistical modelling may be used to estimate the magnitude of the energy demand along the network. Estimates of the operational range of vessels per energy carrier help to estimate maximum bunker station inter-distances. Insight into the potential supply chains that connect the source of each energy carrier to a physical bunker facility is needed to close the loop. Energy carriers may be needed on board in a gaseous or liquid form, or in the form of electrons. Transfer may take place in the form of loading (e.g., filling the fuel tank, charging the battery pack) or swapping (e.g., exchanging fuel containers, exchanging battery containers). Depending on the energy carrier, transfer method(s) and demand quantities, functional designs of bunker stations (in terms of required system elements and their order-of-magnitude dimensions) can be made. Depending on service level requirements both the dimensions of individual bunker stations and their spread over the network may be optimized. Key contribution of this work is a thorough overview of aspects that play a role in the design of bunker infrastructure for the decarbonisation of inland shipping. Based on this overview steps for further research are recommended.@en

The increasing amount of solid waste, e.g., waste tyres from car industry and tailings from mine operations, causes substantial environmental and societal issues. The recycled tyre polymer fibre (RTPF) reinforced cemented tailings backfill (CTB) is a kind of composite that can treat waste tyres and tailings simultaneously and realize green mining, but its engineering properties have not been well understood. In this study, the rheology (i.e., static and dynamic yield stress, and structural build-up), strength (i.e., uniaxial and triaxial compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strengths), microstructure, and life cycle of RTPF reinforced CTB are comprehensively evaluated. For comparison, the engineering performance of the commonly used polypropylene fibre (PPF) reinforced CTB in mines is tested. The experimental results demonstrate that incorporating 0.6 wt% RTPF into CTB can achieve comparable fluidity and strength to the CTB reinforced with 0.3 wt% PPF at reduced cost and improved sustainability. A strength enhancement approach for RTPF reinforced CTB is also developed by adjusting the viscosity of suspending CTB before the addition of RTPF. With this approach, the splitting tensile strength increases by 68 %. The results obtained from this study pave the way for promoting the recycling of abandoned waste tyres and the safe design of backfill structures in mines.@en