De ontwerp-Wet Betaalbare Huur die door de minister voor Volkshuisvesting en Ruimtelijke Ordening bij het parlement aanhangig is gemaakt, geeft aanleiding tot verhitte debatten tussen voor- en tegenstanders van de introductie van regulering van aanvangshuurprijzen in een groot deel van wat nu nog de vrije huursector heet. Inmiddels is de wijze waarop in Duitsland van overheidswege de woninghuren worden beïnvloed meermaals genoemd als een goed, zo niet beter, alternatief voor de manier waarop met de ontwerp-Wet Betaalbare Huur beoogd wordt de aanvangshuren in het grootste deel van de huidige vrije huursector te verlagen. Deze constatering was voor Peter Boelhouwer, Arnoud Vlak en Marietta Haffner aanleiding om op basis van de onderzoeksvraag “Kunnen tempering van de aanvangshuren en de bereidheid om te investeren in de vrijehuursector samengaan?” een eerste antwoord te vinden op de vraag of de Duitse aanpak inderdaad een serieus alternatief voor de ontwerp-Wet Betaalbare Huur is. Uit hun voorstudie blijkt dat de Mietspiegel en de Mietpreisbremse tot doel hebben om de scherpe kanten van marktwerking in de vrijehuursector weg te nemen door de ontwikkeling van de aanvangshuren te dempen ten opzichte van hoe deze zich bij volledig vrijlaten daarvan ontwikkelen. Dit laatste gebeurt door de introductie van vergelijkings- of referentiehuren. Deze worden bijgehouden en gepubliceerd in een zogeheten Mietspiegel, een overzicht van huurprijzen geordend naar bepaalde woningkenmerken. In gebieden met een gespannen woningmarkt mag de aanvangshuur van nieuwe huurcontracten niet hoger liggen dan het niveau van de ter plaatse geldende referentie- of vergelijkingshuur vermeerderd met 10% (de Mietpreisbremse). Centrale gedachte is dat de met de Mietpreisbremse ten hoogste toegestane aanvangshuren de trend volgen die aan de ontwikkeling van markthuren ten grondslag ligt. Door de temperende werking op de ontwikkeling van de aanvangshuren draagt een systematiek geënt op de Duitse Mietspiegel in combinatie met de Mietpreisbremse bij aan verbetering van de betaalbaarheid van de aanvangshuren in die delen van de vrije huursector die zich kenmerken door krapte. Deze toekomstige aanvangshuren worden met toepassing van het instrumentarium lager vastgesteld, dan wanneer ze in het geheel vrije spel van vraag en aanbod tot stand zullen komen. Bovendien heeft de combinatie van Mietspiegel en Mietpreisbremse tot gevolg dat aanvangshuren die uitgaan boven de geldende Mietspiegel met opslag als exces worden aangemerkt. Deze situaties kunnen met het reeds bestaande instrumentarium van bijvoorbeeld de Wet Goed Verhuurderschap bestreden worden. Afhankelijk van de beschouwperiode waarover de Mietspiegel wordt berekend én van de hoogte van de opslag die met de Mietpreisbremse voor nieuw af te sluiten huurovereenkomsten ten hoogste wordt toegestaan, is de dempende werking van het instrumentarium groter of juist minder groot. Onmiskenbaar voordeel van het gebruik van een systeem geënt op de Duitse Mietspiegel in combinatie met een Mietpreisbremse is dat het de investeringsbereidheid in vrijesectorhuurwoningen in beginsel niet aantast. Een ander belangrijk voordeel van de Duitse Mietspiegel in combinatie met de Mietpreisbremse is dat het, in tegenstelling tot de ontwerp-Wet Betaalbare Huur, aansluit op de vraag-/aanbodverhouding op de (huur)woningmarkt. En omdat de woningmarkt vooral regionaal wordt bepaald, betekent dit dat het instrument van regio tot regio verschillende uitkomsten heeft. Naar verwachting zal toepassing van een dergelijk systeem in Nederland voor een niet-onbelangrijk deel van de woningmarktregio’s géén effect hebben. In de regio’s waar geen sprake is van krapte op de vrijesector huurwoningmarkt of waar na verloop van tijd de krapte afneemt zullen de aanvangshuren de opslag van de Mietpreisbremse op de Mietspiegel niet halen. Het instrumentarium schakelt zich in zulke situaties vanzelf uit. Het instrumentarium treedt pas weer werking als de krapte toeneemt. Ook dit draagt bij aan de investeringsbereidheid. In tegenstelling tot wat met de ontwerp-Wet Betaalbare Huur wordt beoogd, is het doel van een systematiek geënt op de Duitse Mietspiegel in combinatie met de Mietpreisbremse juist niet om de aanvangshuren in de vrijehuursector per definitie lager dan de markthuur vast te stellen. Dat tast het vertrouwen van investeerders in het door de overheid ten opzichte van de vrijehuursector gevoerde beleid in de kern aan. Ingeval de wetgever van opvatting is dat een systeem geënt op de Duitse Mietspiegel in combinatie met de Mietpreisbremse resulteert in aanvangshuren die nog steeds voor te veel huishoudens onvoldoende betaalbaar zijn, komt als vanzelf de vraag van herintroductie van objectsubsidiëring aan de orde. Objectsubsidiëring brengt de overheid in de positie om van de investeerders die daarop intekenen te vragen de aanvangshuren vast te stellen op niveaus die een te laag rendement geven. In ruil voor deze prestatie draagt de overheid middels subsidiëring bij aan het voor hen benodigde rendement.@en

Despite persistent housing affordability issues, energy policy and housing renovation are usually investigated separately from housing costs other than energy. Researchers have examined the financial viability of renovation attending to building conditions and the socio-economic characteristics of their occupants. However, the distributional impacts of renovation incentives and the potential of fiscal policy to redistribute housing costs remain understudied. Dutch fiscal policy, favouring homeownership, offers a relevant context to evaluate how property taxation can boost renovation rates. The novelty of this paper resides in investigating the impact of two policies, the current direct subsidy and a proposal for a green tax, on both the financial viability of renovation and the subsequent distribution of housing costs. The proposed green tax combines energy efficiency and taxation of property revenue. We employ a model considering marginal costs of housing renovation, obtained from a government dataset, and marginal benefits, drawn from a hedonic regression. We assess the distributional impacts of different policy scenarios by examining changes in user costs across income deciles. Our findings indicate that existing renovation subsidies exacerbate the regressive distributional impacts resulting from the current housing taxation system in the Netherlands. Introducing energy-efficiency-linked property taxation can make homeownership fiscality less regressive while incentivising housing renovation. Ultimately, this study highlights the importance of incorporating housing affordability as a fundamental element in renovation policies to balance environmental and distributional objectives.@en

Woningschaarste zorgt al een aantal jaren voor een crisis op de woningmarkt. De groei van de woningvoorraad houdt geen gelijke tred met de groei van het aantal huishoudens. Ook lukt het niet jaarlijks 100.000 woningen bij te bouwen. Het almaar groeiende woningtekort en de relatief lage rente zorgen voor sterke prijsstijgingen in de koopsector. Vooral starters en huishoudens tot een middeninkomen zoeken daarom noodgedwongen hun heil in de particuliere huursector. In het Verenigd Koninkrijk en Ierland bestaat deze constellatie al langer. Wat vertellen die landen ons? En wat mogen we verwachten van de uitbreiding van de huurregulering naar het middenhuur-segment?@en

The chapter provides a state-of-the-art review of regulation of the private rented sector focusing particularly price control and tenant security. It provides a brief context of the regulatory challenges in view of the key dimensions of private renting in comparison to other tenures. It details common typologies from first through to third-generation from the history of rent price control and rationales for intervention and effectiveness in terms of, inter alia, affordability and the recent urban affordability crisis. It considers theoretical dimensions as well as empirics, indicating potential costs and benefits of regulation which empirically are found to be mixed. These depend on housing market context, policy objectives and governance frameworks, as well as implementation details.@en

The South African Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) was initiated to provide subsidised housing for low‐income families. However, the programme faced challenges in establishing adequate technical guidelines and standards, resulting in subpar housing quality. This article discusses the multifaceted nature of subsidised housing design, emphasising the importance of incorporating technical housing standards as well as the spatial needs of residents based on their context (at both domestic and neighbourhood scales). The article focuses on the K206 housing RDP project in Alexandra, Johannesburg, as a case study that transitioned from generic technical standards to a resident‐responsive design scheme that was inspired by the backyard room incremental expansions that were already prevalent in the Alexandra context. A critical review of South Africa’s RDP housing design technical standards and policy is explored. The article also examines the density standards and allowances for incremental expansions introduced by the K206 project, analysing data derived from fieldwork observations, interviews, and the spatial analysis of 26 dwelling units. The study’s findings underscore the significance of maintaining an equilibrium between technical standards and resident‐responsive design decisions. The results demonstrate that tailoring the RDP housing design solutions to unique contextual needs can significantly elevate the quality of life of residents concerning income generation and flexibility for incremental expansion. However, this balance is delicate and disparities between the RDP technical standards and user‐initiated development over time also have the potential to ultimately impair residents’ living spaces.@en

State-subsidised housing in the Global South often receives criticism for ­failing to meet the economic needs of low-income citizens. The K206 housing project, situated in Alexandra, Johannesburg, stands out as a unique case by not only addressing housing requirements but also addressing the economic concerns of its low-income homeowners. This response included the incorporation of state initiated formal built-in rental rooms and provisions for incremental extensions to support income generation. This paper aims to explore both of these options that allowed residents to use housing as a means of income generation, and examines household strategies and the motivations behind using these options for extra income. Twenty-one resident interviews and spatial analyses provided insights on how the K206 housing facilitated income-­generating opportunities for its residents and analyses whether households capitalised on these opportunities and the factors influencing their decisions to do so. The findings were that state built-in backyard rooms did not generally work for income generation due to poor allocation strategies that caused conflict. Incremental extensions, even in unintended locations proved more effective for generating income. Incrementally added backyard rooms served multiple purposes and had the potential to generate income to address cash shortfalls, contribute to ­pension plans, and facilitate investments.@en

The energy transition across Europe’s built environment will probably be one of the main financial challenges of the coming decades. Renovating the social housing stock to attain the built fabric standards introduced in the European Directive on Energy Performance of Building (EPBD) will require the mobilisation of both public and private funding as envisioned by the European Commission in the Renovation Wave. In this landscape of increased investment needs, Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) standards have risen to a prominent position as the main indicators of sustainable investment. While ESG-earmarked funds have grown significantly in the last years, there is widespread concern about the real impact of ESGfunded projects and whether these are in fact bringing additional investment into key transitional activities such as the renovation of the social housing stock. This project poses two questions, first, How does ESG funding interlock with the renovation strategies of social housing providers? And second, How do institutional factors affect the uptake of ESG funding? To answer these questions, this project draws from semi-structured interviews with finance officers from housing providers across six European countries with large social housing stocks: Austria, Germany, The Netherlands, France, Sweden, and the UK. The main objective of this paper is to critically assess the contributions of ESG funding to the energy transition and contextualise it within traditional forms of private and public financing of social housing.@en

This chapter analyses whether the turnaround in market share of the Dutch private rental sector, from 10 per cent in 2009 to almost 13 per cent in 2021, can be interpreted as a new role of this tenure following the global urban rental affordability crisis. Based on a literature review, the chapter finds that the Dutch government facilitated the growth of the stock with a de-controlled rent and by making the control of rent prices more market conforming. At the same time, the government introduced regulations that made social renting and homeownership less accessible. As a result, when in the aftermath of the global financial crisis the shortage of housing in comparison to the rising numbers of households rose, affordability and accessibility problems reached the top of the political agenda during the national elections of 2021. In response, the government that came into office in 2022 launched a number of plans to stimulate reducing the housing shortage in a ten-year period. These plans also included re-regulating rent prices for middle-priced rental housing. These plans, as well as the quickly rising inflation in combination with the societal challenges of energy, climate and sustainability, question a continued revival of private renting.@en

The regulation of financial markets according to Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) criteria has become a priority for the European Union (EU). Recent legislation, such as the EU Green Taxonomy, aims to identify sustainable investments enhancing transparency and accountability while steering private finance toward environmental objectives. The introduction of ESG criteria poses specific questions for Social Housing Organisations (SHOs), particularly as the decarbonisation of the housing stock is also incorporated into national legislation. This article contributes to the social housing finance literature by breaking ground on ESG, an area of intensive legislative activity currently re-shaping financial markets. The study draws from interviews with SHOs’ finance directors, banking officers, rating agencies and public officials to answer the question: How does the introduction of ESG legislation affect the financing of social housing decarbonisation? First, the results show that ESG legislation is broadening reporting responsibilities while producing only limited additional finance ultimately geared towards large and commercially oriented SHOs. Second, the expansion of energy-efficiency requirements is resulting in higher costs creating tensions with SHOs’ social mission of building homes at affordable rents. Third, the adoption of ESG financing is producing inequalities in access to capital across national financing systems and individual providers.

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The Renovation Wave is the latest addition to a series of European measures designed to incentivise investment in a low-carbon built environment. In terms of residential retrofits, research has focused on how structural measures can reduce costs through energy savings and improve affordability in the long term. However, it is less clear how retrofit policies can positively impact households with different income levels, energy costs and savings' opportunities across time. EU Member States have provided substantial funding for retrofitting in the form of grants, subsidised loans and tax deductions. This paper addresses with the Netherlands as case study the question: how do different retrofit measures affect the finances and affordability of homeowners in the short and longer term? Our numerical analysis is mainly based on the WoON 2018 dataset, a household-level survey. By focusing on household finances under different financing schemes, this paper aims to place renovation measures in the context of the housing affordability literature. User costs are one of the most important capital-based indicators of long-term affordability. In contrast, cash flows deal with the exchange of money and indicate financial access to housing at a given point in time. In the Dutch context of rising house prices, it is crucial to measure the short and long-term economic impact of energy efficiency measures, as they are likely to have a lasting impact on affordability. Our results show that depending on policy, a majority of homes could be retrofitted with a cost-neutral margin, depending on energy prices and post-retrofit savings. The main barrier to retrofitting is the upfront cost, which threatens short-term affordability. Loans, either subsidised or private, offer an alternative to upfront costs but reduce cost-neutrality. On the other hand, from a user cost perspective, retrofitting lowers costs in the long run. Finally, a cluster analysis shows that middle and higher income groups would be most likely to benefit from retrofitting. This raises the question of the regressive nature and targeting of flat-rate subsidies and tax deductions.

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The nature of housing as a service (fulfilling basic needs) and a capital-intensive commodity (houses and the ‘underlying’ land have exchange value) hampers comparative understandings of ‘housing policy’, and its relation to social policy research. On the one hand, housing is a pillar of social policy, addressing social problems in the urban slums under early industrial capitalism (Fahey & Norris, 2011). Housing was provided mainly through unregulated private renting, characterized by the extraction of ‘super profits’. Following government regulation in the early years of the last century (rent control, quality standards) and in the post-war decades, the development of large-scale social housing programmes, as well as increasing affluence enabling homeownership, the private rental sector has shrunk more or less continuously over the course of time....@en

Het is nog maar vier jaar geleden dat Stef Blok aan het einde van zijn termijn als Minister van Wonen verkondigde dat de woningmarkt af was. Deze conclusie mag als voorbarig beschouwd worden. Immers, de huizenprijzen zouden blijven doorstijgen tot de dag van vandaag, zelfs tijdens de pandemie. We stonden aan de vooravond van een dubbele aanbodproblematiek. De woningmarkt werd prioriteit van de nieuw te vormen regering. @en

In juni presenteerde de Organisatie voor Economische Samenwerking en Ontwikkeling (OESO) het rapport Brick by Brick. Building Better Housing Policies. Betaalbaarheidsproblemen op de woningmarkt zijn immers niet alleen in Nederland in de afgelopen jaren toegenomen. Welk economisch beleid stelt de OESO voor om deze trend om te buigen? Deze bijdrage reflecteert op de OESO-adviezen.@en

In the past decade, Public Rental Housing (PRH) has become the program of providing affordable rental housing to low- and middle-income households in China. Even though descriptions of the governance results are numerous, the previous studies are not underpinned by a theoretical foundation from a governance perspective, nor have they empirically examined whether PRH governance works on the ground. This explorative and empirical paper aims to fill this gap of an outcome-oriented evaluation of the impacts of governance as perceived by the final user. Central government formulated the objective for PRH governance as maintaining stability in the society. Whether the tenants perceive the goal of social stability as achieved was measured along three governance outcome dimensions: satisfaction with housing quality, satisfaction with housing quantity, and willingness to communicate with the government about PRH governance. Data were collected from questionnaires to PRH-tenants in Chongqing, the most important pilot city of PRH provision in China. The findings show that the perceived governance outcomes were quite mixed as tenants were moderately satisfied with PRH housing quantity, but less satisfied with housing quality, and thought they could relatively easily communicate with local government. In view of these mixed outcomes, to strengthen the effectiveness of PRH governance in the eyes of the tenants, this study suggests local governments: (1) to rethink and redevelop the performance evaluation; (2) to rethink the relations with non-governmental actors and organise a monitoring system that will assist in optimizing housing quality; and (3) to facilitate tenants’ communication with local government.

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The pathways that Dutch and German housing policies took in the past decades resulted in two different rental markets. The Dutch policies have delivered the largest social rental sector in the Western world, while Germany has produced one of the largest private rental sectors in Europe. The latter implies that officially no social rental sector is operating in Germany, but a private rental sector where some suppliers of housing are temporarily subsidized. Social rental dwellings in the Netherlands are owned by non-profit organizations, whose public task is to provide affordable housing for those in need. Even though the systems of social renting are different, both countries had moved from providing affordable rental housing to large segments of the population to a more targeted system and from a nationally implemented to a more locally implemented housing policy. In the past decade, the Netherlands has been limiting the supply of social rental housing, while Germany has offered extra subsidies to increase the supply of affordable housing.@en